Supplement Reference.

Critical for vision, immune function, and skin/mucous-membrane integrity. Easy to get from food; supplement only when there's a real reason.

Vitamin A covers two related compounds: preformed retinol (from animal foods, directly usable) and provitamin-A carotenoids like beta-carotene (from plants, partially converted in the body). It regulates gene expression in nearly every tissue, supports rod-cell function in the retina, drives epithelial-cell turnover (skin, gut lining, airways), and is essential for T-cell function. Most omnivores get enough from food. Supplementation is for documented deficiency, very-low-fat diets, malabsorption conditions, or specific therapeutic use (acne, immune support).

Form

Retinyl palmitate or retinyl acetate for direct vitamin A. Beta-carotene if you prefer plant-derived, but conversion efficiency varies hugely (genetic — some people convert at 20%, others at 2%). Cod liver oil is a natural high-A source (also delivers D and omega-3).

Dose

3,000–10,000 IU/day (900–3,000 mcg RAE). Don't exceed 10,000 IU/day chronically without monitoring — vitamin A is fat-soluble and accumulates.

Timing

With a fat-containing meal. AM typical.

Schedule

Daily if supplementing. Some protocols use cycled higher-dose pulses for acne or immune support — discuss with a provider.

Side effects

Hypervitaminosis A at high chronic doses — headache, dry skin, hair loss, bone pain, liver toxicity. Acute toxicity from single massive doses (e.g. polar bear liver). Beta-carotene at high doses turns skin orange (harmless, reversible).

Interactions

Acne-treatment retinoids (isotretinoin) — additive toxicity, do not supplement. Anticoagulants — high-dose vitamin A may potentiate. Methotrexate, tetracyclines — hepatotoxicity risk increases.

Contraindications

Pregnancy — preformed vitamin A above 10,000 IU/day is teratogenic. Smokers — avoid beta-carotene supplements (lung cancer risk). Active liver disease.

Lab markers

Serum retinol (limited utility — body keeps blood levels stable until severe deficiency). Retinol-binding protein (RBP). For most people, dietary history is more useful than testing.

Food sources

Preformed (retinol): liver (especially beef and chicken liver — extremely rich), cod liver oil, egg yolks, dairy fat, butter. Beta-carotene: sweet potato, carrots, pumpkin, butternut squash, dark leafy greens, mango. Eat with fat for absorption.

The body's master water-soluble antioxidant. Essential for collagen synthesis, immune function, and the regeneration of other antioxidants like vitamin E and glutathione.

Ascorbic acid is required for collagen production (skin, blood vessels, tendons, bone matrix), immune cell function (neutrophil and T-cell activity), neurotransmitter synthesis (dopamine → norepinephrine), and the regeneration of glutathione and vitamin E from their oxidised forms. Humans are one of the few mammals that can't make our own — we have to eat it. Easy to hit RDA from food, but therapeutic uses (acute infection, post-surgery healing, heavy exercise) call for higher doses than diet typically delivers.

Form

Ascorbic acid is the standard form and works fine. Liposomal vitamin C for higher doses with less GI upset (significantly better absorption). Sodium ascorbate is buffered and gentler on the stomach. Ester-C is calcium ascorbate, marginally gentler. IV vitamin C delivers blood levels you can't achieve orally (used in cancer-adjunct protocols).

Dose

500–1,000 mg/day for general support. 2–3 g/day during acute illness or for therapeutic effect. Up to 6–10 g/day in divided doses for heavy infection — bowel tolerance is the upper limit.

Timing

Anytime. Split doses for higher amounts (the body absorbs ~70–80% from a single 500mg dose, much less from larger boluses). With or without food.

Schedule

Daily for baseline. Pulse to high doses at first sign of illness.

Side effects

GI upset and loose stools above ~2 g in one dose. The kidney-stone concern is overstated for healthy adults but real for those with a history of oxalate stones.

Interactions

Improves non-heme iron absorption — useful normally, watch with iron-overload conditions (hemochromatosis). Can interfere with some lab tests (occult blood, glucose meters). May reduce the efficacy of some chemotherapy (debated).

Contraindications

Hemochromatosis (iron overload). G6PD deficiency at very high doses (hemolysis risk). History of oxalate kidney stones — keep dose moderate.

Lab markers

Plasma vitamin C (rarely tested — body keeps levels stable until severe deficiency). Symptoms of deficiency: bleeding gums, slow wound healing, easy bruising.

Food sources

Citrus (oranges, grapefruit, lemons), bell peppers (red especially — more than oranges), strawberries, kiwi, broccoli, brussels sprouts, kale, parsley, papaya, guava. Heat-sensitive — raw or lightly cooked preserves more.

Functions more like a hormone than a vitamin. Critical for bone density, immune regulation, mood, and signalling in nearly every tissue in the body.

Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) is the form your skin produces when exposed to UVB sunlight, and the form your body actually uses. It binds nuclear receptors in nearly every tissue — bone, immune cells, brain, heart — acting as a master regulator of calcium handling, immune function, and gene expression. Deficiency is the rule rather than the exception in modern life (indoor work, sunscreen, latitudes far from the equator), and it tracks with depression, weaker immunity, slower bone healing, and higher all-cause mortality. The supplement is cheap, well-tolerated, and one of the easiest wins in this entire reference.

Form

D3 (cholecalciferol), not D2 (ergocalciferol — vegan but ~40% less effective at raising blood levels). Liquid drops or soft-gels in olive or coconut oil — D is fat-soluble. Almost always pair with K2 (MK-7) so the calcium D mobilises goes to bone, not arteries.

Dose

1,000–5,000 IU per day depending on baseline blood level and body weight. Most adults land at 2,000–4,000 IU. Don't mega-dose blind — get a 25-OH-D blood test first if you can.

Timing

With the fattest meal of the day (fat-soluble — absorption drops significantly without fat). Morning is preferable — some people report sleep disruption from evening dosing.

Schedule

Daily. Weekly mega-doses (e.g. 50,000 IU once a week) also work but daily is gentler on the system.

Side effects

Uncommon at standard doses. At very high sustained doses (>10,000 IU/day for months), risk of hypercalcemia — fatigue, nausea, confusion, kidney stones. Easily detected on blood work, easily reversed by stopping.

Interactions

Thiazide diuretics can elevate calcium when combined with high-dose D. Some statins (especially atorvastatin) may modestly reduce D synthesis. Corticosteroids reduce D activation. Anti-seizure medications (phenobarbital, phenytoin) accelerate D breakdown — higher doses may be needed.

Contraindications

Sarcoidosis and other granulomatous diseases (the granulomas convert D to its active form unregulated, causing hypercalcemia). Hypercalcemia of any cause. Hyperparathyroidism (relative).

Lab markers

25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-OH-D) — this is the standard marker. Mainstream target: 30–50 ng/mL. Functional / longevity-oriented practitioners often aim for 50–70 ng/mL. Below 20 ng/mL is deficient; above 100 ng/mL is too high. Retest 8–12 weeks after starting or changing dose.

Food sources

Fatty fish (salmon, mackerel, sardines, herring), egg yolks, beef liver, mushrooms exposed to UV light, fortified dairy and plant milks. The biggest natural source is bare skin in midday sun — 10–20 min on arms and legs produces several thousand IU, but skin pigmentation, age, latitude, and sunscreen all reduce yield significantly.

The body's primary fat-soluble antioxidant. Protects cell membranes and circulating lipids from oxidation. Always take the mixed-tocopherol form.

Vitamin E is a family of eight related compounds — four tocopherols and four tocotrienols. Alpha-tocopherol is the most abundant in the body, but the gamma and delta forms (and the tocotrienols) have distinct, complementary roles. It sits in cell membranes and lipoproteins (HDL, LDL) and stops free-radical chain reactions before they damage the structural fats. Deficiency is uncommon in well-nourished people, but supplementing the wrong form (synthetic alpha-tocopherol alone, the cheap stuff on most shelves) actually depletes the other tocopherols and may do net harm.

Form

Mixed tocopherols + tocotrienols — non-negotiable. Look for products labelled 'full-spectrum' or 'mixed-family' that list alpha, beta, gamma, delta tocopherols. Avoid 'dl-alpha-tocopherol' (synthetic, half-inactive) and avoid alpha-tocopherol-only supplements (deplete gamma form).

Dose

100–400 IU/day mixed tocopherols. More is not better — the high-dose trials that showed harm used isolated alpha-tocopherol at >400 IU/day.

Timing

With a fat-containing meal. Anytime.

Schedule

Daily if supplementing, but most people don't need to supplement at all if eating enough nuts, seeds, and olive oil.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. High doses can cause headache, fatigue, nausea, blurred vision.

Interactions

Blood thinners (warfarin, aspirin, DOACs) — vitamin E has mild antiplatelet effect, additive at high doses. Stop high-dose E 1–2 weeks before surgery. Statins — vitamin E may slightly reduce their lipid-lowering effect (clinical relevance debated).

Contraindications

Bleeding disorders. Planned surgery (stop in advance). Caution with warfarin.

Lab markers

Serum alpha-tocopherol (rarely tested). Functional markers: oxidative stress panels (8-OHdG, F2-isoprostanes) if research-grade.

Food sources

Almonds, hazelnuts, sunflower seeds, wheat germ oil, hazelnut oil, olive oil, avocado, leafy greens (spinach, swiss chard), red bell pepper. A daily handful of nuts and regular olive oil use covers most people.

Tells calcium where to go — into bone and teeth, not into arteries. Essential partner to vitamin D3.

Vitamin K2 (menaquinones) activates two proteins that control calcium routing: osteocalcin (which incorporates calcium into bone) and matrix Gla-protein (which keeps calcium out of arterial walls and soft tissue). Without adequate K2, the calcium your body absorbs — including the extra calcium mobilised by vitamin D3 supplementation — ends up calcifying the wrong places: blood vessels, kidneys, breast tissue. The combination of D3 without K2 has been linked to increased arterial calcification, which is why these two should always travel together.

Form

MK-7 (menaquinone-7) — the practical winner for most people. Long half-life (~3 days), once-daily dosing, steady blood levels. MK-4 works too but has a very short half-life (~1 hour) — needs multiple daily doses at much higher amounts. MK-7 from natto fermentation is the standard form.

Dose

100–200 mcg/day of MK-7. Pair 100 mcg K2 per 1,000–2,000 IU vitamin D3 as a rough rule.

Timing

With the fat-containing meal you take your vitamin D with. Morning typical.

Schedule

Daily, ongoing.

Side effects

Very well-tolerated. No established upper limit for K2 in healthy adults.

Interactions

Warfarin — vitamin K of any kind antagonises warfarin's action. Patients on warfarin should keep K intake stable (consistent, not high or low) and ideally avoid K2 supplements. Newer DOACs (apixaban, rivaroxaban) don't have this issue.

Contraindications

On warfarin (relative — talk to anticoagulation clinic). Otherwise none significant.

Lab markers

No standard clinical test. Research-grade: undercarboxylated osteocalcin (ucOC) — high levels indicate K2 deficiency.

Food sources

Natto (fermented soy — by far the richest source, almost 1,000 mcg per serving), hard aged cheeses (gouda, edam), egg yolks from pasture-raised hens, goose liver, grass-fed butter, sauerkraut. Most modern diets are very low in K2 — supplementation is usually the easier route.

The cofactor for neurotransmitter synthesis — serotonin, dopamine, GABA all need B6 to be made. Often the missing piece in mood, sleep, and PMS.

B6 is required for over 140 enzymatic reactions, but its most relevant role is in converting amino acid precursors into neurotransmitters: tryptophan → serotonin, tyrosine → dopamine, glutamate → GABA. It's also a key methylation cofactor (alongside B12 and folate) for clearing homocysteine. Deficiency is more common than people realise — particularly in women on hormonal contraceptives (which deplete B6), those on long-term diuretics, alcohol users, and anyone with chronic inflammation. The classic supplement form (pyridoxine HCl) is fine in modest doses but at higher doses paradoxically causes neuropathy. The active form, P5P (pyridoxal-5-phosphate), works at lower doses and avoids the toxicity risk.

Form

P5P (Pyridoxal-5-Phosphate) — the active coenzyme form. Best for anyone with MTHFR variants or who has trouble with regular pyridoxine. Pyridoxine HCl — the standard cheap form, fine at modest doses.

Dose

P5P: 25–50 mg/day. Pyridoxine HCl: 25–100 mg/day. Don't exceed 100 mg/day chronically — risk of paradoxical sensory neuropathy at sustained high doses.

Timing

AM with food. Mildly energising for some.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Peripheral neuropathy — tingling, numbness, balance issues — at chronic doses above 100 mg/day, sometimes lower in sensitive individuals. The neuropathy can be slow to reverse. Stay under 100 mg and switch to P5P if running long-term.

Interactions

Levodopa (Parkinson's drug) — B6 dramatically increases peripheral breakdown of levodopa, reducing efficacy. Hormonal contraceptives deplete B6. Some antibiotics (isoniazid, cycloserine) deplete B6. Anti-seizure drugs interact bidirectionally.

Contraindications

Levodopa therapy (without carbidopa). Pre-existing peripheral neuropathy (caution — could worsen). History of B6-induced neuropathy.

Lab markers

Plasma P5P (active form) — better than total B6. Homocysteine elevates when B6, B12, or folate is low. Symptomatic markers: PMS severity, mood, neuropathy signs.

Food sources

Chickpeas, beef liver, tuna, salmon, chicken breast, potatoes (with skin), bananas, pistachios, sunflower seeds, avocado. Cooking destroys some B6 — raw or lightly cooked sources retain more.

Essential for red blood cell formation, nerve health, and methylation. Deficiency is common in vegetarians, older adults, and anyone on long-term acid blockers or metformin.

B12 (cobalamin) is required for DNA synthesis, red blood cell production, and the maintenance of the myelin sheath around nerves. It's also a key methylation cofactor — converting homocysteine to methionine, which then feeds the methylation cycle that handles neurotransmitter synthesis, gene regulation, and detox. Found almost exclusively in animal foods, it requires intrinsic factor (made in the stomach) for absorption. Deficiency develops quietly over years and shows up as fatigue, neuropathy (tingling, numbness), brain fog, mood changes, and macrocytic anemia. By the time the blood test catches it, neurological damage may already be partly irreversible.

Form

Methylcobalamin — the active methylated form. Best general choice. Hydroxocobalamin — long-lasting depot form (used in injections). Adenosylcobalamin — the mitochondrial form, useful in combination. Avoid cyanocobalamin (synthetic, requires conversion, leaves a small cyanide residue your body has to clear). Sublingual lozenges or sprays bypass the intrinsic-factor issue.

Dose

500–1,000 mcg/day sublingual for maintenance. 1,000–5,000 mcg/day for documented deficiency. IM injection (1,000 mcg weekly to monthly) for severe deficiency, pernicious anemia, or post-bariatric.

Timing

AM with food. Many people report B12 is mildly energising — don't take at night.

Schedule

Daily for maintenance. Less frequent (1–2x weekly) acceptable if dose is high — B12 stores in the liver for years.

Side effects

Very safe. Rarely, acne (with high-dose methyl forms in sensitive individuals). The 'B12 makes you energetic' effect is real if you were deficient — neutral if you weren't.

Interactions

Metformin — long-term use depletes B12; anyone on metformin should supplement. PPIs and H2 blockers (omeprazole, famotidine, etc.) — reduce stomach acid needed to liberate B12 from food. Nitrous oxide — inactivates B12 (relevant for dental and recreational exposure).

Contraindications

Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) — cyanocobalamin specifically is contraindicated; methyl or hydroxy forms are fine. Otherwise essentially none.

Lab markers

Serum B12 — the standard test, but limited. Below 200 pg/mL is deficient; 200–400 is grey zone. Methylmalonic acid (MMA) — far more sensitive; elevated MMA = functional B12 deficiency even with normal serum B12. Homocysteine — elevates with B12, folate, or B6 deficiency.

Food sources

Animal foods only: shellfish (clams, mussels — extremely high), liver and organ meats, fish (salmon, sardines, trout, tuna), beef, lamb, poultry, eggs, dairy. Fortified nutritional yeast and plant milks for vegans. Vegans and most vegetarians need to supplement — plant-form analogs in algae and seaweed don't reliably substitute.

The methyl-donating workhorse of the body. Critical for DNA synthesis, neurotransmitter production, and clearing homocysteine. Methylated form only.

Folate is B9 — required for synthesising DNA, dividing cells, and making serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. It works in tight partnership with B12, converting homocysteine (cardiovascular risk factor) back to methionine and feeding the universal methylation cycle. ~30–50% of the population carries an MTHFR gene variant that impairs the conversion of synthetic folic acid (the cheap stuff in fortified bread and most prenatals) to the active form. For those people, taking synthetic folic acid can actually back up the system and worsen symptoms. The active methylated form bypasses the problem entirely.

Form

L-methylfolate (5-MTHF), branded as Metafolin or Quatrefolic. The active form, works in everyone regardless of MTHFR status. Folinic acid (calcium folinate) is a good alternative if methylfolate causes overstimulation. Avoid folic acid (synthetic) — incompletely converted, can mask B12 deficiency, may cause issues in MTHFR carriers.

Dose

400–800 mcg/day for maintenance. 1,000–5,000 mcg/day for active deficiency, depression with low folate, hyperhomocysteinemia, or pregnancy. Higher doses (15 mg/day) are used clinically for refractory depression (Deplin protocol).

Timing

AM with food. Some people report methylfolate is energising or even mildly stimulating — don't take at night first time.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Some sensitive individuals get over-methylation symptoms with methylfolate: anxiety, irritability, insomnia, headache. Start at lower dose. Switching to folinic acid often resolves.

Interactions

Methotrexate (cancer / autoimmune doses) — folate antagonism is the mechanism, supplementing folate undoes the drug. Anti-seizure medications (phenytoin, phenobarbital) — both deplete folate and have their levels reduced by it.

Contraindications

On methotrexate for cancer or rheumatoid arthritis without rheumatologist approval. Unrecognised B12 deficiency (always test or supplement both together).

Lab markers

RBC folate (intracellular — better than serum folate). Homocysteine — elevated with low folate, B12, or B6; target below 8 μmol/L. MTHFR genetic test (C677T and A1298C variants) — one-time test, informs lifelong supplementation choice.

Food sources

Dark leafy greens (the name 'folate' comes from 'foliage'): spinach, kale, romaine, asparagus. Legumes (lentils, chickpeas, black beans). Avocado. Beef liver. Brussels sprouts, broccoli. Cooking destroys ~30–50% of folate — eat some sources raw.

The hair-skin-nails vitamin. Worth supplementing if you're actually deficient or running high-dose ALA (which depletes it); largely a marketing fixture otherwise.

Biotin is a B-vitamin cofactor for carboxylase enzymes — small but essential roles in fatty acid synthesis, gluconeogenesis, and amino acid metabolism. True biotin deficiency is rare (gut bacteria make some, and dietary need is small), but symptoms when it does occur are striking: hair thinning and loss, brittle nails, skin rash, and neurological symptoms. The 'biotin for hair' market vastly exceeds the actual evidence — most people taking biotin for hair growth aren't deficient and don't benefit. Where biotin matters: documented deficiency (rare), alpha-lipoic acid users (ALA competes for the same transporter and depletes biotin over time), and pregnancy (need rises).

Form

Plain D-biotin capsules. Often included in B-complex products.

Dose

30–100 mcg/day RDA-level. 1,000–5,000 mcg (1–5 mg) for hair / skin claims (note: evidence weak in non-deficient people). Up to 10 mg/day used clinically in MS research (under supervision).

Timing

Anytime, with or without food.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Almost none — water-soluble, excreted readily. Acne in some at high doses (mechanism unclear).

Interactions

Lab test interference — high-dose biotin can falsely alter immunoassay-based blood tests (thyroid panels, troponin for heart attacks, hormone panels). Stop biotin 2–3 days before scheduled bloodwork. Anti-seizure drugs (phenytoin, carbamazepine) deplete biotin.

Contraindications

None significant. Heed the lab-test interference issue around bloodwork.

Lab markers

Serum biotin (rarely tested). Urinary 3-hydroxyisovaleric acid (a sensitive functional marker — elevates in deficiency).

Food sources

Egg yolks (the richest source, but only when cooked — raw egg whites contain avidin which binds biotin), liver, salmon, almonds, sweet potato, sunflower seeds, mushrooms. Easily met by typical diet.

An essential nutrient grouped with the B-vitamins. Builds cell membranes, makes the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, and prevents fatty liver. Most people are short.

Choline is required for three things you can't function without: phosphatidylcholine (the main fat in every cell membrane), acetylcholine (the neurotransmitter that drives memory, attention, and muscle contraction), and the export of fat from the liver (without choline, fat accumulates as non-alcoholic fatty liver). The body makes a small amount but not enough — it's officially an essential nutrient. The Institute of Medicine set an Adequate Intake of 425 mg (women) / 550 mg (men) per day; most Americans get less than half of that. Pregnancy and lactation dramatically increase requirements.

Form

Citicoline (CDP-Choline) — best for cognitive use. Crosses the blood-brain barrier well, mildly stimulating. Alpha-GPC — also brain-targeted, more potent acetylcholine precursor, the form used in studies on cognition and power output. Choline bitartrate — cheap, systemic (doesn't cross BBB as well), good for liver/general support. Phosphatidylcholine — liver-supportive, slower acting.

Dose

Citicoline: 250–500 mg/day. Alpha-GPC: 300–600 mg/day. Choline bitartrate: 500–1,000 mg/day. Total choline intake target (food + supplement): 425–550 mg/day for adults, higher in pregnancy.

Timing

AM with food. Alpha-GPC and citicoline can be mildly stimulating — not at night for sensitive people.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Fishy body odor at high doses (especially from choline bitartrate or phosphatidylcholine — bacteria metabolise excess to trimethylamine). Headache, insomnia, GI upset in some.

Interactions

Methotrexate depletes choline. Anticholinergic medications may oppose choline's effects (and vice versa — beneficial direction).

Contraindications

Trimethylaminuria (rare genetic 'fish odor syndrome'). Caution at very high doses with depression history — paradoxical lowering of mood reported in some.

Lab markers

Plasma free choline (rarely tested). Liver enzymes (ALT, AST) — choline deficiency manifests as fatty liver. Some labs offer phosphatidylcholine panels.

Food sources

Egg yolks (the richest source — 2 eggs hits ~50% of daily need), beef liver, beef, chicken liver, salmon, shrimp, soybeans (incl. tofu), wheat germ, quinoa, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, peanuts. People who don't eat eggs or liver almost always under-consume choline.

A quasi-B-vitamin that acts as a second messenger for insulin and serotonin signalling. Most evidence-backed natural intervention for PCOS, and a sleeper for anxiety.

Inositol (technically myo-inositol, the most common of nine isomers) is a sugar alcohol that the body uses as a signalling molecule downstream of multiple hormones — most notably insulin, FSH, and TSH. It modulates serotonin receptor sensitivity and has anxiolytic properties. The 40:1 myo-inositol-to-D-chiro-inositol ratio matches what's in healthy ovaries and is the most-studied protocol for PCOS — improving menstrual regularity, ovulation, insulin sensitivity, and androgen levels. Separately, high-dose myo-inositol alone has shown RCT-grade benefit for panic disorder, OCD, and depression. It's safe, well-tolerated, and disarmingly powerful for a 'just a sugar.'

Form

Myo-inositol — the standard form, mildly sweet powder, mixes in water. 40:1 myo + D-chiro blend for PCOS (the Ovasitol formulation is the most-studied). Avoid 'inositol hexaphosphate (IP6)' for these uses — different mechanism, different effects.

Dose

PCOS: 2 g myo + 50 mg D-chiro twice daily (4 g + 100 mg total). Anxiety / OCD / depression: 12–18 g/day myo-inositol divided into 2–3 doses. General use / sleep: 2–4 g pre-bed.

Timing

With food. AM and PM for PCOS dose. Pre-bed for sleep / calm.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. GI upset, gas, mild loose stools at high doses (>10 g). Dizziness or fatigue in some at therapeutic doses.

Interactions

Lithium — inositol may reduce lithium's mood-stabilising effect (mechanism: lithium works partly by depleting inositol). Diabetes medications — additive glucose lowering. Hormonal contraceptives — interaction debated.

Contraindications

On lithium for bipolar disorder (without psychiatrist input). Bipolar disorder generally (theoretical mania risk at very high doses).

Lab markers

Fasting insulin, HbA1c, and androgen panel (testosterone, DHEAS, free androgen index) for PCOS tracking. Hamilton Anxiety / Y-BOCS for mood/anxiety conditions.

Food sources

Fruits (cantaloupe, oranges, strawberries), beans, brown rice, oats, nuts. Total dietary intake is typically 0.5–1 g/day — supplementation delivers far more.

The myo-inositol with 6 phosphate groups. A natural iron chelator with surprising anti-cancer and bone-density evidence.

IP6 (inositol hexaphosphate, phytic acid) is the storage form of phosphorus in plants and seeds. In supplement form (often paired with inositol — 'IP6 + Inositol' branded products), it acts as a chelator of excess iron, blocks the formation of free radicals from Fenton chemistry, and shows anti-cancer activity in animal and small human trials (most strongly with breast cancer adjunct work by AbulKalam Shamsuddin). Also supports bone density and kidney stone prevention. Different from regular inositol — read the label.

Form

IP6 + Inositol blends (Cell Forte, IP-6 International, Jarrow). Avoid generic 'phytic acid' without standardisation.

Dose

800–2,400 mg IP6 daily, often combined with 200–600 mg inositol.

Timing

Empty stomach for chelation effect (away from minerals). PM common.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Can cause mineral deficiencies (especially iron, zinc, calcium) at high chronic doses — take separate from mineral-rich meals.

Interactions

Iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium — chelates and reduces absorption. Take 2 hours from mineral-containing meals or supplements.

Contraindications

Iron-deficiency anemia. Active osteoporosis without mineral monitoring. Pregnancy / breastfeeding.

Lab markers

Ferritin (iron status), mineral panel if running long-term.

Food sources

Whole grains, legumes, nuts, seeds — naturally high in phytic acid (often considered an 'anti-nutrient' for mineral absorption, beneficial in some contexts).

The single most useful mineral supplement for most people. Calms the nervous system, improves sleep, relaxes muscles, and underpins 300+ enzymatic reactions.

Magnesium is an essential mineral the body uses in hundreds of biochemical reactions — energy production, DNA synthesis, muscle contraction, nerve signalling, blood-sugar regulation, and the conversion of vitamin D to its active form. A large share of adults don't get enough from diet (estimates range 30–60% below the RDA), and the modern stressors that deplete it — alcohol, sugar, chronic stress, intense exercise, certain medications — are widespread. Of all the supplements on this list, this is the one most people benefit from most immediately.

Form

Glycinate (best general-purpose — calming, well-absorbed, doesn't cause loose stools). L-Threonate for cognitive / brain-targeted use (the only form that meaningfully crosses the blood-brain barrier). Citrate if you also want gentle bowel motility. Avoid oxide — cheap but poorly absorbed.

Dose

200–400 mg elemental magnesium per day. Threonate is dosed by total compound weight (2 g delivers ~144 mg elemental). Start low (200 mg) and titrate up if needed — too much causes loose stools.

Timing

Evening, 30–60 min before bed for the calming / sleep effect. Threonate works AM too if cognition is the goal. With or without food. Citrate on an empty stomach if using for motility.

Schedule

Daily, ongoing. No cycling needed — magnesium is a sustained-replacement supplement, not a pulsed intervention.

Side effects

Loose stools at higher doses — citrate and oxide cause this most readily, glycinate least. If you get diarrhoea, switch form or drop the dose. Very high doses can cause low blood pressure or drowsiness.

Interactions

Reduces absorption of tetracycline and fluoroquinolone antibiotics, bisphosphonates, and levothyroxine — separate by at least 2 hours. Can enhance the effect of muscle relaxants and blood-pressure medications.

Contraindications

Severe kidney impairment (the kidneys clear excess magnesium; if they're not working, it accumulates). Caution with heart-block / bradyarrhythmia. Caution with myasthenia gravis.

Lab markers

RBC magnesium (intracellular magnesium — what actually matters). Serum magnesium is what most labs run by default but it's a poor marker because the body keeps blood levels stable even when tissue is depleted. Target RBC Mg above 5.0 mg/dL.

Food sources

Pumpkin seeds, almonds, cashews, spinach, swiss chard, dark chocolate (70%+), avocado, black beans, edamame, tofu, fatty fish (salmon, mackerel). Even a magnesium-rich diet often falls short of optimal intake — supplementation makes up the gap.

Critical for bone, but get it from food rather than pills. Calcium supplements carry cardiovascular risk that food calcium doesn't.

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body — 99% sits in bones and teeth, the remaining 1% drives muscle contraction, nerve signalling, blood clotting, and hormonal release. Bone calcium acts as a reservoir the body draws on to keep blood levels stable. Adequate intake is essential, especially for women in perimenopause and beyond when bone loss accelerates. The catch: high-dose supplemental calcium has been linked to increased cardiovascular events in some studies, while calcium from food shows no such risk. The mechanism appears to be the abrupt blood-level spike from a 500–1000 mg pill that food can't produce.

Form

Food first, always. If you must supplement: calcium citrate (well-absorbed, doesn't require stomach acid, fine on empty stomach). Hydroxyapatite (bone-form calcium with co-factors). Avoid calcium carbonate (cheap, needs stomach acid, constipating). Avoid combined calcium-D supplements that deliver >500 mg calcium per dose.

Dose

Total intake 1,000–1,200 mg/day (food + supplement). If supplementing, keep doses under 500 mg at a time and not more than 500 mg/day from supplements — the rest should be food.

Timing

With food. Split doses across the day if supplementing more than 250 mg.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Constipation (especially carbonate). Bloating. Kidney stones at high doses combined with low water intake. Hypercalcemia at very high doses.

Interactions

Reduces absorption of thyroid medication (levothyroxine — separate by 4 hours), tetracyclines, fluoroquinolones, bisphosphonates, iron, zinc — separate dose timing. Thiazide diuretics elevate calcium retention.

Contraindications

Hyperparathyroidism. History of kidney stones (esp. calcium oxalate). Hypercalcemia. Active cardiovascular disease (relative — discuss with cardiologist before supplementing).

Lab markers

Serum calcium (corrected for albumin) — narrow normal range; deviations matter. Ionized calcium (more accurate). DEXA scan for bone density (every 2 years for at-risk adults). Parathyroid hormone (PTH) if abnormal calcium.

Food sources

Dairy — yogurt, kefir, cheese (especially aged hard cheeses), milk. Plant sources — sardines and canned salmon with bones, leafy greens (kale, collards, bok choy — NOT spinach, which binds it), tahini, almonds, broccoli, fortified plant milks. Two servings of dairy + a serving of greens easily delivers 1,000+ mg without supplements.

Critical for immune function, testosterone, wound healing, taste, smell, and skin. One of the most consistently under-consumed minerals, especially in plant-heavy diets.

Zinc is a cofactor for over 300 enzymes and structurally embedded in over a thousand proteins (zinc fingers in DNA-binding transcription factors). It runs immune cell production and function, T-cell maturation, wound healing, sperm production, taste/smell perception, and is required for testosterone synthesis. Plant foods contain zinc but it's largely bound up by phytates — vegetarians and vegans typically absorb 30–50% less than omnivores. Deficiency symptoms (poor immunity, slow healing, loss of taste, hair loss, acne, low testosterone) are common and easily reversed.

Form

Zinc picolinate or bisglycinate — well-absorbed, well-tolerated. Citrate is fine too. Zinc carnosine (Pepzin GI) is specifically for gut healing. Lozenges (acetate or gluconate) for acute viral illness — works at the throat tissue, must dissolve slowly. Avoid oxide and sulfate (poorly absorbed, GI upset).

Dose

15–30 mg/day for general maintenance. 30–50 mg/day for immune support or wound healing. Don't exceed 40 mg/day chronically without monitoring — high zinc displaces copper.

Timing

With food (empty-stomach zinc often causes nausea). PM is common — zinc supports the GH and testosterone pulses that happen overnight.

Schedule

Daily. If running high doses (>40 mg) for more than a few weeks, supplement 1–2 mg copper to avoid imbalance, or cycle.

Side effects

Nausea on empty stomach. Metallic taste. Copper deficiency at high chronic doses (anemia, neuropathy). Lozenges can numb the throat or cause oral irritation.

Interactions

Reduces absorption of: tetracyclines, fluoroquinolones, bisphosphonates, penicillamine, copper, iron — separate by 2 hours. Thiazide diuretics increase zinc loss.

Contraindications

None at sensible doses. Long-term very high doses (>100 mg/day) are immunosuppressive and depletive of copper — avoid.

Lab markers

Serum zinc (limited utility — homeostatically regulated). Plasma zinc with food-restriction protocol. Copper-to-zinc ratio (more useful than either alone). Alkaline phosphatase (zinc-dependent enzyme) low when zinc low.

Food sources

Oysters (extraordinary — single oyster can deliver a full RDA), red meat (beef especially), lamb, pumpkin seeds, hemp seeds, cashews, chickpeas, lentils, oats. Animal-source zinc absorbs significantly better than plant-source.

Only supplement if you've tested low. Iron is essential, but supplementing without need causes oxidative stress and GI misery.

Iron is the oxygen-carrier — it's at the centre of hemoglobin in red blood cells and myoglobin in muscle. Deficiency causes fatigue, brain fog, hair shedding, exercise intolerance, restless legs, pica, and the classic 'low energy that nothing fixes' picture. Menstruating women, pregnant women, frequent blood donors, distance runners, and vegetarians/vegans are the highest-risk groups. The flip side: too much iron is genuinely dangerous (oxidative tissue damage, cardiovascular risk, accumulates in liver/heart) — so iron is the one supplement where 'test, don't guess' really matters.

Form

Iron bisglycinate (chelated, far gentler on the stomach than traditional forms — same absorption). Heme iron (from animal sources — best absorbed, no GI side effects). Lactoferrin-bound iron (well tolerated). Ferrous sulfate is the cheap standard but causes nausea, constipation, and dark stools in many people. Avoid 'iron polypeptide' marketing terms without specifics.

Dose

Only if low on labs. 18–25 mg elemental iron daily for mild deficiency. 65 mg every other day (newer evidence shows alternate-day dosing absorbs better than daily). For severe anemia, prescription-level dosing or IV iron under a doctor.

Timing

On an empty stomach with vitamin C (doubles absorption). Far from calcium, coffee, tea, dairy (all reduce absorption). PM is common to avoid daytime GI issues.

Schedule

Alternate-day dosing (Mon/Wed/Fri) is now recommended — better absorption than daily, fewer side effects. Re-test at 8–12 weeks. Stop or reduce when ferritin reaches target.

Side effects

Constipation, dark or black stools (normal — not GI bleeding), nausea, stomach pain, metallic taste. Bisglycinate causes the least of these. Alternate-day dosing reduces them further.

Interactions

Reduces absorption of levothyroxine, tetracyclines, fluoroquinolones, bisphosphonates, levodopa — separate by 4 hours. Calcium, coffee, tea, and dairy reduce iron absorption (separate by 2 hours).

Contraindications

Hemochromatosis (genetic iron overload — affects ~1 in 200 of Northern European descent) — supplementing iron is dangerous. Thalassemia, sideroblastic anemia, anemia of chronic disease — these are not iron-deficiency anemias and don't respond to iron. Active infection (iron feeds bacterial growth). Always test ferritin first.

Lab markers

Ferritin — the storage marker, the most useful single test. Target ranges debated: above 30 ng/mL is mainstream-normal but symptom-relief often requires 50–100. Above 50 is suboptimal-floor for active women. Hemoglobin (the late marker — drops only when storage is empty). Iron + TIBC + transferrin saturation for full panel. Note ferritin is also an inflammatory marker — high ferritin doesn't always mean iron overload.

Food sources

Heme iron (best absorbed): red meat, liver, oysters, mussels, sardines, dark poultry meat. Non-heme iron: lentils, beans, tofu, pumpkin seeds, spinach, fortified cereals. Always pair non-heme sources with vitamin C (pepper, citrus, tomato) and away from coffee/tea.

Essential for thyroid hormone synthesis. Most people get enough from salt or seafood, but those who don't are genuinely deficient.

Iodine is the structural atom in thyroid hormones (T3 has three iodines, T4 has four). Without it, the thyroid can't produce hormones, the body slows down, and a goiter develops. Mandatory salt iodisation eliminated severe deficiency across most of the developed world a century ago — but people on low-sodium diets, sea-salt-only diets, plant-based diets without seaweed, and pregnant women in particular can still fall short. Iodine has a narrow therapeutic window: too little causes hypothyroidism, too much can cause hyperthyroidism, autoimmune flares, or thyroid suppression.

Form

Potassium iodide (the standard, used in iodised salt and most supplements). Nascent iodine (atomic form, marketed as faster-absorbing — evidence for advantage is weak). Lugol's solution (iodine + potassium iodide combo, traditional clinical form). Kelp / seaweed is variable and can deliver erratic doses — fine as food, less so as a measured supplement.

Dose

150 mcg/day RDA for adults. 220 mcg in pregnancy, 290 mcg in lactation. Multivitamins typically deliver 100–200 mcg. High-dose protocols (12–50 mg of Lugol's) are controversial — proceed only under supervision with thyroid monitoring.

Timing

AM with food. Anytime really.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Acne (especially at higher doses). Metallic taste. Rarely: thyroid suppression or hyper-stimulation, acneiform rash, mucosal irritation.

Interactions

Lithium (additive thyroid suppression). Amiodarone (already iodine-rich). Anti-thyroid drugs (methimazole, PTU) — opposing actions. ACE inhibitors / potassium-sparing diuretics (if taking potassium iodide).

Contraindications

Autoimmune thyroid disease (Hashimoto's, Graves') — additional iodine can trigger flares. Always test thyroid antibodies (TPO, TgAb) before high-dose iodine. Active hyperthyroidism. Iodine-induced hyperthyroidism.

Lab markers

Urinary iodine (the standard population marker — preferably 24-hour collection). TSH, free T4, free T3 to assess thyroid function. TPO antibodies before high-dose iodine.

Food sources

Sea vegetables (kelp, nori, wakame, dulse — extremely high, almost too high). Seafood (cod, shrimp, tuna). Dairy (cows are supplemented or get iodine from feed). Eggs. Iodised salt — the simplest answer for most people. Note: sea salt is NOT a good iodine source unless specifically iodised.

Essential trace mineral. Drives glutathione peroxidase, supports thyroid hormone conversion, and regulates immune tone. A few Brazil nuts a week often does the job.

Selenium is built into ~25 selenoproteins, the most important being glutathione peroxidase (a major antioxidant enzyme) and the deiodinases that convert thyroid hormone T4 into the active T3. Adequate selenium also dampens autoimmune thyroid antibodies (TPO) and modestly supports immune resilience. The catch: the range between deficient and toxic is unusually narrow. Brazil nuts can vary 10-fold in selenium content depending on the soil they grew in, which makes 'a few Brazil nuts a day' surprisingly variable.

Form

Selenomethionine — the form most readily incorporated into selenoproteins. Best general choice. Selenium yeast — mixed selenoamino-acids, well-studied. Sodium selenate / selenite — inorganic forms, less well-absorbed. Brazil nuts are a natural food source but content is highly variable — supplementation is more reliable.

Dose

100–200 mcg/day. Upper limit ~400 mcg/day from all sources combined — easy to overshoot if eating Brazil nuts daily AND taking a multivitamin with selenium.

Timing

Anytime, with or without food.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Selenosis at high doses (>400 mcg/day chronically): garlic breath, hair loss, brittle nails, GI upset, mood changes, neurological issues. The toxic ceiling is closer than people realise.

Interactions

Anticoagulants (mild additive at high doses). Statins (some evidence selenium improves their efficacy). Lithium (additive thyroid effects).

Contraindications

Pre-existing selenosis. Skin cancer history (paradoxical signal from SELECT — non-melanoma skin cancer increased in supplemented group). Caution if eating significant Brazil nuts daily — don't double-dose.

Lab markers

Serum selenium or whole-blood selenium. Glutathione peroxidase activity (functional marker). TPO antibodies in those with thyroid autoimmunity.

Food sources

Brazil nuts (50–100 mcg per nut — 1–2 per day is often enough). Seafood (tuna, sardines, oysters, shrimp). Organ meats (liver, kidney). Eggs (especially yolk). Mushrooms. Sunflower seeds. Soil selenium content varies regionally — plant sources from selenium-rich areas (US plains, parts of Brazil) are far higher than from selenium-poor areas (parts of the UK, China, Europe).

Essential trace mineral that's easy to overlook — until you've taken high-dose zinc for a few months and depleted it. Required for iron metabolism, collagen cross-linking, and energy production.

Copper is a cofactor for ~12 essential enzymes including cytochrome c oxidase (the final step of mitochondrial energy production), superoxide dismutase (antioxidant), lysyl oxidase (collagen and elastin cross-linking — what makes connective tissue strong), and ceruloplasmin (which loads iron onto transferrin). Most people get enough from food, but zinc supplementation — particularly at high doses for more than a few weeks — competitively depletes copper. Copper deficiency presents as anemia, low neutrophil count, easy bruising, and neurological symptoms. Just as importantly: too much copper is also a problem (Wilson disease, copper IUDs in some women), so the goal is balance, not maximisation.

Form

Copper bisglycinate — best-absorbed, gentlest. Copper sulfate — cheap, common, fine. Often included in multivitamins at 1–2 mg.

Dose

1–2 mg/day. Only supplement if running high-dose zinc, eating very plant-heavy / phytate-rich diets, or with documented deficiency. Total intake ceiling: 10 mg/day from all sources.

Timing

Anytime, with food. Separate from zinc by at least 2 hours (they compete for absorption).

Schedule

Daily, paired with zinc supplementation.

Side effects

Nausea, GI upset, metallic taste at high doses. Excess copper deposits in liver and brain over time (Wilson disease territory).

Interactions

Zinc (competitive absorption — most important interaction). Iron (high copper can elevate iron). Penicillamine, trientine (copper chelators — opposite direction).

Contraindications

Wilson disease (genetic copper accumulation — copper supplementation contraindicated). Hemochromatosis (copper increases iron levels). Cholestatic liver disease (copper accumulates).

Lab markers

Serum copper. Ceruloplasmin (the carrier protein — better functional marker). Copper-to-zinc ratio in serum is the most clinically useful — should be roughly 1:1, with high zinc:copper ratio (>1.5) suggesting copper deficiency.

Food sources

Beef liver (by far the richest source), oysters, dark chocolate, cashews, sesame seeds, sunflower seeds, lentils, mushrooms, shiitake mushrooms, spirulina. A single 3 oz serving of beef liver delivers roughly 14 mg copper.

Essential trace mineral for bone matrix, antioxidant defence, and blood sugar control. Most people get plenty from food — supplementation is rarely needed.

Manganese is a cofactor for several enzymes including manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD, a major mitochondrial antioxidant), arginase (urea cycle), and the enzymes that build bone matrix and cartilage. Deficiency is genuinely rare — typical diets provide plenty — but it does happen on heavily-processed-food diets or with certain medications. The opposite end (manganese toxicity) is more of a concern: occupational exposure (welding) or contaminated well water can cause Parkinson-like neurological symptoms. For most people, this mineral lives quietly in a multivitamin and doesn't need its own attention.

Form

Manganese gluconate, sulfate, or bisglycinate — typically 2 mg per dose in multivitamins.

Dose

1.8–2.3 mg/day (RDA). Don't exceed 11 mg/day from all sources (upper limit). Standalone supplementation rarely needed.

Timing

With food. Often in multivitamins.

Schedule

Daily if supplementing.

Side effects

At reasonable doses, none. At high doses (especially via inhalation): neurological symptoms resembling Parkinson's, headache, irritability.

Interactions

Calcium, iron, magnesium compete for absorption. Antibiotics (quinolones, tetracyclines) — manganese reduces absorption; separate by 2 hours.

Contraindications

Liver disease (impaired clearance, accumulation risk). Manganese-related neurological symptoms (current or prior). Pre-existing Parkinson's (caution).

Lab markers

Whole-blood manganese (limited utility). MRI of basal ganglia in suspected toxicity. Symptom monitoring more useful than testing in most cases.

Food sources

Whole grains (especially brown rice, oats, whole wheat), nuts (almonds, hazelnuts, pecans), leafy greens, pineapple, beans, mussels, tea (high in manganese). Plant-heavy diets easily exceed RDA.

A trace mineral that potentiates insulin's action. Helpful for blood sugar control and reducing sugar / carb cravings — particularly in those with documented insulin resistance.

Chromium is a trace mineral that helps insulin do its job — specifically, it appears to be part of a low-molecular-weight chromium-binding substance (chromodulin) that amplifies insulin signalling at the receptor. Adequate chromium improves insulin sensitivity and glucose disposal, which is why it shows up in blood sugar formulas and 'craving control' products. Evidence is mixed: people who are genuinely deficient or insulin-resistant benefit; people who are already metabolically healthy don't notice much. Modest effects, but the safety profile is excellent.

Form

Chromium picolinate — most-studied and best-absorbed form. Chromium polynicotinate (GTF chromium) — bound to niacin, also well-absorbed. Avoid chromium chloride (poorly absorbed).

Dose

200–500 mcg/day for general use. Up to 1,000 mcg/day for diabetes / insulin resistance (under monitoring).

Timing

With meals containing carbohydrates — works at the point of insulin action.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Headache, mood changes, sleep disturbance in some. Rare kidney issues at very high chronic doses.

Interactions

Diabetes medications — additive glucose lowering, monitor. Levothyroxine — chromium can reduce absorption; separate by 4 hours.

Contraindications

Pre-existing kidney disease (caution at high doses). Hypoglycemia tendency. Pregnancy (limited safety data above RDA).

Lab markers

HbA1c, fasting glucose, fasting insulin for metabolic tracking. Serum chromium not routinely tested.

Food sources

Broccoli, grape juice (interestingly high), barley, oats, brewer's yeast, garlic, green beans, organ meats, mussels. Chromium is removed during refining, so processed grains have very little.

The mineral most Americans dramatically under-consume. Critical for blood pressure, muscle function, and electrolyte balance. Food-first; supplements are dose-capped for safety reasons.

Potassium is the primary intracellular cation — the partner to sodium that drives nerve impulses, muscle contraction, and the maintenance of cellular electrical gradients. Adequate intake lowers blood pressure (works by relaxing vascular smooth muscle and offsetting sodium's effects), reduces stroke risk, supports bone density, and prevents muscle cramps. The RDA is 3,500–4,700 mg/day; most Americans get half that. The catch: supplemental potassium is FDA-capped at 99 mg per pill (low-acid concentrations of potassium can ulcerate the GI tract; bulk dosing can dangerously elevate blood potassium and stop the heart). So getting enough is almost entirely a food problem.

Form

Food first (food potassium is delivered slowly and safely). Supplemental: potassium citrate, gluconate, or chloride — capped at 99 mg per OTC pill in the US. Lite-Salt (50/50 sodium / potassium chloride) is the easiest practical supplement. Prescription potassium chloride is available for documented deficiency.

Dose

Total intake: 3,500–4,700 mg/day. OTC supplements rarely deliver meaningful amounts on their own — they're top-ups, not solutions.

Timing

With food. Spread doses across the day if supplementing.

Schedule

Daily (food primarily).

Side effects

GI upset, ulcer risk from concentrated pill forms. Cardiac arrhythmias and arrest from too-rapid IV or oral mega-doses.

Interactions

ACE inhibitors, ARBs, potassium-sparing diuretics (spironolactone, eplerenone) — all raise potassium; supplementing on top can cause dangerous hyperkalemia. NSAIDs mildly elevate potassium. Digoxin — potassium balance critical for safety.

Contraindications

Kidney disease (CKD stage 3+) — kidneys clear potassium; impaired kidneys can't, supplementation is dangerous. On any of the K-elevating medications above — supplement only under medical supervision with blood monitoring. Addison's disease.

Lab markers

Serum potassium (normal 3.5–5.0 mEq/L). Narrow safe range — both high and low are dangerous. Pair with serum sodium and creatinine for context.

Food sources

Beans (especially white and black beans), potato (especially with skin), sweet potato, spinach, swiss chard, beet greens, avocado, banana, salmon, yogurt, coconut water, oranges, dried apricots, tomato paste. One banana ≈ 400 mg — not as much as the reputation suggests.

Cheap baking soda. Acutely buffers lactic acid build-up — proven ergogenic for high-intensity efforts of 1–10 minutes.

Plain sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) — baking soda — is one of the most evidence-backed legal performance supplements. Pre-exercise dosing raises blood bicarbonate, buffering the hydrogen ions that drive muscle fatigue during high-intensity efforts (rowing, swimming intervals, 400–1500m running, high-rep weightlifting). Performance gains of 1–4% in efforts of 1–10 minutes. The catch: GI distress at higher doses is brutal. New 'serial loading' protocols (smaller doses split over days) and enteric-coated products mitigate this.

Form

Sodium bicarbonate (food-grade baking soda — same molecule). Enteric-coated sodium bicarbonate (Maurten Bicarb System) — much gentler GI.

Dose

0.2–0.3 g per kg body weight, 60–90 min before exercise. Serial loading: smaller doses across days leading up to event.

Timing

60–90 min pre-exercise (acute) or per serial-loading protocol.

Schedule

Acute / event-based. Not for chronic daily use (sodium load).

Side effects

Severe GI distress (cramps, urgent diarrhea, vomiting) — the historical limitation. Enteric coating largely solves this. High sodium load.

Interactions

Antacids — additive. Lithium — increases excretion. Stimulants — additive heart-rate effects.

Contraindications

Hypertension. Heart failure (sodium load). Kidney impairment. Sodium-restricted diets. Active peptic ulcer.

Lab markers

Sodium intake tracking if running often.

Food sources

Baking soda — the literal kitchen ingredient. Look for aluminium-free varieties.

An under-appreciated trace mineral. Supports bone density, raises free testosterone modestly, lowers SHBG, and reduces inflammatory markers.

Boron is a trace mineral that isn't formally classified as essential but has consistent biological effects when supplemented. It influences hormone metabolism — most notably reducing SHBG (sex-hormone-binding globulin) and raising free testosterone in men and free estrogen in women. It also supports bone matrix and joint function, partly through cofactor effects on vitamin D and magnesium metabolism. Doses are tiny (single-digit mg) and effects accumulate over weeks. Easy to overlook because it's rarely in multivitamins.

Form

Boron glycinate, boron citrate, or calcium fructoborate. All work; calcium fructoborate is the most-studied form for joint pain specifically.

Dose

3–10 mg/day. 6 mg is the typical effective dose; 10 mg is the high end. Don't exceed 20 mg/day chronically.

Timing

AM with food. With magnesium or calcium for bone-support synergy.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. GI upset, headache, skin rash at high doses (>20 mg).

Interactions

Mild estrogen-elevating effect — caution combining with HRT or estrogen-sensitive conditions. May modestly raise SHBG-bound steroid levels.

Contraindications

Estrogen-sensitive cancers (caution). Pregnancy (high doses associated with developmental effects in animals — keep below RDA).

Lab markers

Boron is not routinely tested. Track functional markers: total + free testosterone (men), SHBG, vitamin D, calcium, DEXA scan for bone density.

Food sources

Prunes (one of the richest sources), avocado, raisins, nuts (almonds, hazelnuts), apples, pears, broccoli, chickpeas. Diets rich in fruit and nuts deliver 2–5 mg naturally; supplementation tops up to therapeutic levels.

Trace lithium — a fraction of the prescription dose used in bipolar disorder, but enough to support mood, cognition, and possibly neuroprotection long-term.

Lithium is the lightest metal and an element with quietly fascinating biology. Pharmaceutical lithium (lithium carbonate, 600–1,800 mg/day) is the gold-standard mood stabiliser in bipolar disorder. But at much lower doses — 1–20 mg of elemental lithium daily — research suggests benefits for mood, sleep, neuroprotection, and possibly longevity. Population studies show areas with higher lithium in drinking water have lower rates of suicide, violence, and dementia. The supplemental form (lithium orotate) delivers a small but measurable amount of bioavailable lithium without the side-effect profile of the prescription doses. Sits in an interesting middle ground between supplement and micro-dose medication.

Form

Lithium orotate — bound to orotic acid, which appears to improve cellular uptake at low doses. Standard products deliver 5 mg elemental lithium per capsule. Lithium aspartate is an alternative. Avoid lithium carbonate / citrate (the Rx forms) without medical supervision.

Dose

1–10 mg elemental lithium per day. Start at 1–5 mg. Doses above 20 mg/day move toward needing the lab monitoring that prescription lithium requires.

Timing

PM with food (some find it calming and pro-sleep). AM also fine.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated at low doses. Mild GI upset, hand tremor, thirst, mild cognitive blunting in sensitive people. Far less than pharmaceutical lithium.

Interactions

NSAIDs raise serum lithium levels (relevant at high doses, less so at supplement levels). ACE inhibitors and thiazide diuretics — same. Caffeine increases lithium clearance. Inositol opposes lithium pharmacologically.

Contraindications

Kidney impairment (lithium is renally cleared). Pregnancy (Ebstein anomaly risk — prescription doses; supplement-level risk lower but unclear). Severe thyroid disease (lithium suppresses thyroid). Active dehydration (concentrates lithium).

Lab markers

Standard lithium-orotate doses don't require monitoring. If running higher (15+ mg/day) or for extended periods: serum lithium (target <0.3 mEq/L for supplemental use; 0.6–1.0 mEq/L is the pharmacological range). TSH and creatinine annually as a baseline of caution.

Food sources

Trace amounts in drinking water (variable by region) and some grains, vegetables, and seafood. Not enough to deliver supplemental doses through food.

An overlooked trace element required for collagen cross-linking and bone matrix formation. The 'hair, skin, nails' mineral.

Silicon is the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust and a trace component of human connective tissue. It's required to form glycosaminoglycans, cross-link collagen, and build the bone matrix. Most people get enough from food (bananas, leafy greens, whole grains), but the bioavailable form (orthosilicic acid) is what the body uses — and supplements vary widely in delivering it. Choline-stabilised orthosilicic acid (ch-OSA / BioSil) is the best-studied form for skin, hair, and nails support.

Form

Choline-stabilised orthosilicic acid (ch-OSA / BioSil) — well-studied. Horsetail extract (Equisetum) — traditional source. Bamboo silica. Avoid plain silicon dioxide (poorly absorbed).

Dose

5–10 mg orthosilicic acid daily (BioSil delivers 5 mg per dose).

Timing

With food. Anytime.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Very well-tolerated. Mild GI upset rare.

Interactions

Generally clean.

Contraindications

Severe kidney disease (silicon clearance impaired). Pregnancy / breastfeeding (limited high-dose data).

Lab markers

Not routinely tested. DEXA for bone density tracking.

Food sources

Bananas, oats, brown rice, leafy greens, whole grains, beer (surprisingly high in silicic acid), horsetail tea. Refined grains have most of their silicon removed.

A bone-mineral cousin to calcium. Strontium ranelate (Rx in Europe) was withdrawn for cardiovascular concerns; strontium citrate (OTC) is still used for bone support with caution.

Strontium is a divalent cation chemically similar to calcium — it incorporates into bone mineral and stimulates osteoblast activity while inhibiting osteoclast resorption. Strontium ranelate (Protelos) was approved in Europe for osteoporosis in 2004 and produced meaningful fracture reduction, but was withdrawn in 2017 over cardiovascular event signals. Strontium citrate (the OTC supplemental form) doesn't have the same large outcome trials but is widely used. Importantly: strontium falsely inflates DEXA bone density readings (it's heavier than calcium) — get bone scans 4+ weeks after stopping if accurate density tracking matters.

Form

Strontium citrate capsules. Avoid strontium ranelate (Rx, withdrawn).

Dose

340–680 mg/day strontium citrate.

Timing

Away from calcium (compete for absorption — separate by 2+ hours). PM is common (calcium often AM).

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

GI upset. Increased DEXA reading (artificial — not real density gain). Rare allergic reactions.

Interactions

Calcium — competitive absorption. Quinolone / tetracycline antibiotics — chelation, separate by 2 hours. Bisphosphonates — opposing absorption.

Contraindications

Cardiovascular disease history (caution — based on ranelate withdrawal signal). Severe kidney impairment. Pregnancy / breastfeeding.

Lab markers

DEXA (with strontium artifact correction). Fracture history. P1NP, CTX bone turnover markers for finer tracking.

Food sources

Trace amounts in spices, seafood, leafy greens — well below supplemental doses.

Highly porous carbon that binds toxins and gas in the gut. Hospital-standard for acute poisoning; supplemental use for bloating and occasional detox.

Activated charcoal is carbon treated with oxygen at high temperature to create a porous structure with massive surface area (one teaspoon has the surface area of a football field). It binds toxins, drugs, and gas molecules in the gut, preventing absorption. The clinical use in acute drug overdose / poisoning is well-established — ERs give 25–100 g of activated charcoal slurry. Supplemental uses (bloating, hangover prevention, general 'detox') are more modest. Critical interaction caveat: activated charcoal binds and blocks absorption of nearly all oral medications and many nutrients — separate by 2+ hours.

Form

Coconut shell-derived activated charcoal capsules or powder. Avoid hardwood-sourced (residue concerns).

Dose

500–2,000 mg as needed. Acute toxin exposure: 25–100 g (hospital).

Timing

Away from all meals, medications, and supplements — 2 hours apart minimum.

Schedule

As-needed (gas, bloating, occasional detox). Not for daily long-term use (nutrient depletion).

Side effects

Black stool (harmless). Constipation. Tongue / dental staining if not encapsulated. Nutrient depletion with chronic use.

Interactions

Reduces absorption of nearly all oral medications and many nutrients. Separate by 2+ hours. Especially: birth control pills, antidepressants, thyroid medication, prescription cardiac drugs.

Contraindications

Active GI bleeding. Bowel obstruction. With any medication you need to actually work (separate timing).

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Not food. Don't confuse with food-grade charcoal in ice cream / breads — much lower binding capacity.

An absorbent volcanic clay that binds positively-charged toxins, heavy metals, and bacteria in the gut.

Bentonite (montmorillonite) is a clay formed from weathered volcanic ash. Its layered structure carries a strong negative charge that attracts positively-charged ions — heavy metals, toxins, certain bacterial toxins, aflatoxins. Used in animal feed industries for mycotoxin binding and increasingly in human protocols for detoxification, IBS-D, and acute diarrheal illness. Like activated charcoal, it binds other compounds — separate from medications and supplements.

Form

Food-grade calcium bentonite clay (Aztec Healing Clay, Living Clay). Mix with water — never use metal utensils (the clay binds metal ions, including from the spoon).

Dose

0.5–2 tsp powder in water 1–2x daily, away from meals.

Timing

Away from food, medications, and supplements (separate by 2 hours).

Schedule

Short-term protocols (1–4 weeks). Not for continuous long-term use.

Side effects

Constipation (drink lots of water). Mineral depletion with chronic use. Quality matters — contaminated clays can themselves contain heavy metals.

Interactions

Same as activated charcoal — binds many oral medications and supplements. Separate by 2+ hours.

Contraindications

Bowel obstruction. With critical oral medications (timing). Pregnancy (limited safety data; avoid).

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Not in everyday food.

A microporous mineral with a cage-like structure that binds heavy metals and ammonia. Marketed heavily for detox; evidence is limited.

Zeolites are aluminosilicate minerals with a microporous cage structure that selectively binds certain ions. Clinoptilolite is the specific zeolite used in human supplementation. Its strongest evidence is for binding ammonia (used in hepatic encephalopathy research), heavy metals (lead, mercury), and reducing gut permeability. Modern wellness marketing has run far ahead of the clinical evidence — claims of binding 'all toxins' are overstated. Quality is critical: choose micronised, particle-size-tested products from reputable suppliers.

Form

Micronised activated clinoptilolite zeolite (powder, liquid, or capsules). Reputable brands include ZeoBoost, Pure Body.

Dose

Per product instructions — typically 1–3 g powder daily or 10–30 drops of liquid 1–3x daily.

Timing

Away from food, medications, and supplements (separate by 2 hours).

Schedule

30–90 day protocols. Not for indefinite use.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Constipation. Trace aluminium release — choose well-processed products.

Interactions

Binds oral medications — separate by 2+ hours. May reduce mineral absorption with chronic use.

Contraindications

Bowel obstruction. With critical oral medications. Pregnancy (limited safety data).

Lab markers

Heavy metal panels (urine, hair, stool) for chelation tracking.

Food sources

Not in everyday food.

The most-studied performance supplement on earth. Builds strength and lean muscle, supports brain energy under stress, and is increasingly used for cognitive support in women and older adults.

Creatine is a small molecule built from three amino acids (arginine, glycine, methionine) that the body uses to rapidly regenerate ATP — the energy currency of cells. Found in red meat and fish, and made in modest amounts by the liver. Supplementation saturates muscle and brain stores beyond what diet alone can deliver. The research base is enormous: thousands of trials showing improvements in strength, power output, lean mass, and recovery. More recent work shows benefits for cognition under sleep deprivation and stress, mood, and bone density — making creatine relevant well beyond the gym.

Form

Creatine monohydrate — the standard, the cheapest, the most studied. Don't pay extra for HCl, ethyl ester, or 'micronised' versions — they don't outperform monohydrate. Look for Creapure-branded creatine for purity.

Dose

3–5 g/day. Larger people (>180 lbs / 80 kg) trend to 5g; smaller people fine at 3g. Loading phase (20 g/day for 5 days) is optional — saturation happens in 3–4 weeks at 5g either way.

Timing

Anytime. With or without food. Post-workout slightly better for muscle uptake but the effect is small. Consistency matters far more than timing.

Schedule

Daily, indefinitely. No cycling needed.

Side effects

Mild intracellular water retention (lean mass and water — NOT bloat). Some report GI upset at high single doses (split if so). The 'creatine causes kidney damage' concern is debunked in healthy adults.

Interactions

Stimulants — additive performance / heart-rate effect at high doses. Caffeine + creatine — early concern that caffeine blunted creatine has not held up in better-designed studies.

Contraindications

Pre-existing kidney disease — creatine elevates serum creatinine (the test marker) even without causing damage; this confuses interpretation of kidney function. Discuss with nephrologist if relevant. Otherwise none.

Lab markers

Serum creatinine will rise modestly on creatine — this is normal and does not indicate kidney damage. Cystatin C is a more accurate kidney function marker if you need one. Muscle biopsy creatine content for research; not done clinically.

Food sources

Red meat (beef, lamb), pork, salmon, herring, tuna. ~1–2 g per pound of muscle meat. Vegetarians have ~50% lower baseline creatine stores — they get the biggest boost from supplementation.

The simplest amino acid does an outsized amount of work. Improves sleep by dropping core temperature, supports collagen, calms the nervous system, and may extend lifespan.

Glycine is technically non-essential (the body makes some), but functionally most people consume far less than is optimal. It's the smallest amino acid, but ~30% of all collagen and large amounts of glutathione and creatine are built from it. It also acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter, binds GABA-A receptors, and lowers core body temperature when taken pre-bed — which is a powerful sleep signal. Recent longevity research (the GlyNAC trials at Baylor) shows glycine + NAC supplementation reverses several markers of biological aging in older adults.

Form

Plain glycine powder — slightly sweet, dissolves in water. Magnesium glycinate double-duty supplement. GlyNAC (glycine + NAC) — the longevity stack.

Dose

3 g pre-bed for sleep. 5–10 g/day for collagen support. 100 mg/kg body weight/day in the GlyNAC longevity protocol (split AM/PM).

Timing

Pre-bed for sleep (30–60 min before). With food for collagen / general support.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset at very high doses. Sedation if combined with sleep medications.

Interactions

Sedatives — additive. Clozapine — glycine modestly opposes its action.

Contraindications

None significant. Caution at high doses in severe kidney or liver disease.

Lab markers

Not routinely tested. Plasma amino acid panel if investigating broader status.

Food sources

Collagen-rich foods: bone broth, skin-on chicken, slow-cooked meats with connective tissue, gelatin, pork rinds. Almost no glycine in muscle-meat-only diets — collagen consumption matters.

The amino acid in green tea that creates calm focus. Fast-acting (30–60 min), non-sedating, takes the jitter out of caffeine.

L-Theanine is a non-protein amino acid found almost exclusively in tea. It crosses the blood-brain barrier easily and increases alpha brainwave activity — the 'awake but relaxed' state associated with meditation and easy focus. Mechanistically it boosts GABA, serotonin, and dopamine while damping excitatory glutamate. The result is calm without sedation. It pairs famously with caffeine: 200 mg theanine + 100 mg caffeine produces the cleanest 'flow state' stack in the supplement world, taking the edge off caffeine's jitter while preserving the focus.

Form

Plain L-theanine — usually 100 or 200 mg capsules. Suntheanine is the patented, well-studied form. Free-form powder works too.

Dose

100–200 mg as needed (acute). 200–400 mg pre-bed for sleep support.

Timing

Anytime — AM with coffee for calm focus, PM 30–60 min before bed for sleep. Onset within 30–60 min of a single dose.

Schedule

Daily or as-needed. No tolerance build-up, no withdrawal.

Side effects

Almost none. Occasionally mild headache or dizziness at very high doses.

Interactions

Mild blood-pressure lowering (usually beneficial). Sedatives — additive at sleep-doses.

Contraindications

None significant. Caution if on blood pressure medication (additive lowering).

Lab markers

Not tested.

Food sources

Green tea, white tea, black tea. A cup of green tea has 25–60 mg L-theanine. Matcha is the highest natural source (~30–40 mg per gram of powder). Reaching therapeutic doses (200 mg) from tea alone requires 4–8 cups.

An overlooked amino acid that may be one of the most important. 2023 research showed taurine supplementation extended lifespan in middle-aged mice — and human levels predict healthy aging.

Taurine is a sulfur-containing amino acid the body uses for bile salt synthesis, cell membrane stabilisation, calcium signalling, and antioxidant defence. It's the most abundant free amino acid in the heart, brain, and white blood cells. Levels drop significantly with age — by 80% from young adulthood to old age. A 2023 Nature paper (Singh et al.) caused a stir: taurine supplementation extended healthy lifespan in mice by ~10–12% and improved nearly every aging biomarker. Human evidence is still building, but cardiovascular and metabolic effects are well-established. Cheap, safe, and very plausibly one of the most important supplements that nobody talks about.

Form

Plain L-taurine capsules or powder. Mildly sweet, dissolves in water.

Dose

1–3 g/day for general use. The mouse longevity work translated to ~3–6 g/day human equivalent. Cardiovascular trials use 3 g/day. Start at 1 g and titrate.

Timing

Anytime. With or without food. Often paired with pre-workout or pre-bed (mild calming effect).

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Very well-tolerated even at high doses. Mild GI upset uncommon. Drowsiness in some.

Interactions

Mild blood-pressure lowering (additive with antihypertensives — usually helpful). Lithium (may increase lithium levels). Generally clean.

Contraindications

Bipolar disorder on lithium (theoretical interaction). Pregnancy / lactation — limited high-dose safety data, RDA-equivalent intake is safe.

Lab markers

Plasma taurine (research-grade, not routinely available). Cardiovascular markers: BP, lipid panel.

Food sources

Shellfish (scallops, mussels, clams), fish (especially dark meat tuna, swordfish), red meat, poultry dark meat, organ meats. Not found in plants — vegans and vegetarians have measurably lower taurine and may benefit most from supplementation. Energy drinks contain taurine in modest amounts (500–1,000 mg per can).

The most direct glutathione precursor. Hospital-grade antioxidant used for acetaminophen overdose, with emerging uses in mental health, fertility, and longevity.

NAC is a modified form of the amino acid cysteine that crosses cell membranes well and is rapidly converted to glutathione — the body's master antioxidant. In hospitals it's the antidote for acetaminophen overdose (gives the liver enough cysteine to regenerate glutathione faster than the toxin destroys it). Outside the ICU, NAC has gathered evidence in psychiatry (OCD, trichotillomania, addiction), respiratory disease (mucolytic — thins mucus), fertility (sperm quality, PCOS), and longevity (paired with glycine in the GlyNAC protocols). The FDA has wobbled on its supplement status in the US over the years but it remains widely available.

Form

Plain N-Acetyl Cysteine capsules. Effervescent NAC (hospital form, dissolves in water) for mucolytic use. NAC + glycine (GlyNAC) for longevity protocols.

Dose

600–1,200 mg/day for general antioxidant / glutathione support. 1,800–2,400 mg/day for psychiatric or COPD use (split AM/PM). 600 mg twice daily is the most common starting point.

Timing

Empty stomach for best absorption; or with food if it causes GI upset. AM/PM split for higher doses.

Schedule

Daily. Some users cycle to avoid theoretical receptor desensitisation but evidence for this is thin.

Side effects

Sulfur smell (some products). Mild GI upset, nausea. Headache. Rarely, paradoxical bronchospasm in asthmatics — start cautiously.

Interactions

Nitrates / nitroglycerine — additive vasodilation, hypotension. Activated charcoal reduces NAC absorption. Some chemotherapy drugs — NAC may reduce efficacy (discuss with oncologist).

Contraindications

Active asthma exacerbation (bronchospasm risk). Bleeding disorders (mild antiplatelet effect at high doses).

Lab markers

Plasma glutathione (research-grade). Liver enzymes if monitoring hepatic effect. No standard NAC test.

Food sources

Cysteine (not NAC) is found in eggs, garlic, onions, broccoli, brussels sprouts, red peppers. The body converts cysteine to glutathione, but at a slower rate than NAC delivers.

A direct methyl donor that lowers homocysteine, supports liver function, and provides a modest but real boost to strength and power output.

TMG (trimethylglycine, betaine) is a small molecule with three methyl groups it can hand off. It's the body's primary backup methyl donor when SAMe is running low — particularly important for converting homocysteine back to methionine in the liver. Strong methylation support has downstream effects on neurotransmitter synthesis, gene regulation, and detox. Athletes have taken interest because TMG modestly improves power output and lean body composition (~3–5% strength gains in some trials). It also spares choline by donating methyl groups in choline's place — relevant for anyone supplementing NMN/NR (which consume methyl groups).

Form

Anhydrous TMG (betaine anhydrous) — the standard form. Slightly sweet powder; mixes in water. Don't confuse with 'betaine HCl' which is a separate compound for stomach acid support.

Dose

500–2,000 mg/day for general methylation / homocysteine support. 2,500 mg twice daily (5 g/day) for performance use — the dose used in the strength studies.

Timing

AM or pre-workout for performance. Anytime for methylation support. With or without food.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Body / breath odor (rare, dose-dependent — like trimethylaminuria). Mild GI upset. Can raise LDL cholesterol modestly at high doses (5g+/day) in some — worth checking lipids if running long-term.

Interactions

Generally clean. Theoretical interaction with methotrexate.

Contraindications

Pre-existing high LDL cholesterol (relative — monitor). Trimethylaminuria (fish-odor syndrome).

Lab markers

Homocysteine — the most direct marker; target below 8 μmol/L. Lipid panel if running >2 g/day long-term.

Food sources

Beets and beet greens (where 'betaine' got its name), spinach, quinoa, wheat bran, whole grains, shellfish. Most people get 100–300 mg/day from diet — supplementing 1g+ is meaningfully more.

The direct precursor to dopamine, norepinephrine, and adrenaline. Shines under stress and sleep deprivation — restores cognitive performance when catecholamines are depleted.

L-Tyrosine is an amino acid the body converts (via L-DOPA) into dopamine, then noradrenaline, then adrenaline — the catecholamine neurotransmitters that drive focus, motivation, alertness, and stress response. Under acute stress or sleep deprivation, the brain burns through catecholamine precursors faster than it can replace them — that's when supplemental tyrosine shows the biggest effect. It's been studied extensively in military contexts (sustained operations, cold exposure) and consistently restores cognitive performance under those conditions. In a well-rested, low-stress state it does much less. Also a thyroid hormone precursor.

Form

L-Tyrosine (the standard amino acid). N-Acetyl L-Tyrosine (NALT) is marketed as more bioavailable but actually delivers less tyrosine to the brain — stick with plain L-Tyrosine.

Dose

500–2,000 mg per dose, acute. Up to 150 mg/kg total in military / stress-research protocols. 500 mg is a comfortable starting point.

Timing

Empty stomach, 30–60 min before cognitive demand or stressful situation. Don't take with a protein meal — competes with other amino acids for brain transport.

Schedule

As-needed (acute use). Daily use is less well-supported and can deplete other amino acids over time. Best used pulsed.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated acutely. Headache, GI upset, anxiety, irritability in some. Can raise blood pressure in sensitive individuals.

Interactions

MAO inhibitors — potentially serious hypertensive reaction (tyramine-like). Levodopa (Parkinson's) — competes for absorption. Thyroid hormone (tyrosine is a precursor; usually no clinical interaction at supplement doses). Stimulants — additive effects.

Contraindications

Hyperthyroidism (precursor to thyroid hormone). Pheochromocytoma (catecholamine-secreting tumor). On MAOIs. Bipolar disorder (manic phase). Pregnancy (limited data above food intake).

Lab markers

Not routinely tested. TSH if running daily for extended periods. Catecholamine panels in research only.

Food sources

High-protein foods: turkey, chicken, cheese, fish, beef, soy, almonds, sesame seeds, pumpkin seeds. Most omnivores get plenty from diet — the supplemental case is for acute / pulsed use under stress.

The full upstream precursor to serotonin and melatonin. Gentler than 5-HTP — the body converts as needed rather than flooding the system.

L-Tryptophan is an essential amino acid the body uses to build serotonin (mood, calm, satiety) and melatonin (sleep). Unlike 5-HTP, which skips a regulatory step, tryptophan goes through the full conversion pathway, allowing the body to titrate based on need. Less aggressive at raising serotonin acutely, but typically gentler on the gut and less likely to cause the serotonin-syndrome-adjacent issues that 5-HTP can. Brain uptake is the rate-limiting step — it competes with other amino acids for transport, which is why tryptophan works best on an empty stomach or with a small carb that triggers an insulin response (insulin pulls other amino acids into muscle, clearing the runway for tryptophan).

Form

L-Tryptophan capsules or powder. Quality has historically been a concern (1989 EMS / Showa Denko incident) — buy pharmaceutical-grade from reputable brands.

Dose

500–2,000 mg/day. 1,000–2,000 mg pre-bed for sleep. Higher doses (3 g+) used clinically for refractory depression.

Timing

Empty stomach pre-bed for sleep, or with a small carbohydrate (like a piece of fruit) to assist brain uptake. Not with high-protein meals.

Schedule

Daily for sustained use, or as-needed.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Drowsiness (the point, at PM dose). Mild nausea, headache, dry mouth. Vivid dreams.

Interactions

SSRIs, SNRIs, MAOIs, tramadol — theoretical serotonin syndrome risk. Sedatives, benzodiazepines — additive drowsiness. Carbidopa (Parkinson's) — interaction reported.

Contraindications

On serotonergic medications without provider input. Eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome history (the contaminant scare). Carcinoid syndrome (already-elevated serotonin).

Lab markers

Not standard. Subjective sleep and mood tracking.

Food sources

Turkey (the famous one — but the post-Thanksgiving sleepiness is mostly about the carbs, not the tryptophan), chicken, eggs, cheese, fish (especially tuna), tofu, pumpkin seeds, oats, milk.

The direct serotonin precursor, one step away from the neurotransmitter itself. Faster and stronger than tryptophan, but with more caveats — use carefully.

5-HTP is what your body makes from tryptophan, one step before serotonin. Taking it bypasses the rate-limiting enzyme tryptophan hydroxylase, so it raises serotonin more directly and acutely than tryptophan does. That's both the appeal and the risk: the boost is real (mood, sleep, appetite suppression), but the dysregulation is also real. 5-HTP can be converted to serotonin in the gut and peripheral tissues, causing nausea and GI side effects, and it can deplete dopamine over weeks if not balanced. Best used short-term, pulsed, or paired with a dopamine-supporting nutrient.

Form

5-HTP extracted from Griffonia simplicifolia seeds. Look for time-release / sustained-release forms to reduce GI side effects.

Dose

50–200 mg/day. Start at 50 mg and titrate up slowly. 100 mg pre-bed for sleep is a common starting point.

Timing

PM 30–60 min before bed for sleep. AM or split for mood / appetite (with food to reduce nausea).

Schedule

Short-term (4–12 week courses) preferred. Cycle off periodically to prevent dopamine imbalance.

Side effects

GI upset is common — nausea, diarrhea, cramping. Drowsiness. Vivid dreams. Possible dopamine depletion with extended daily use (flat mood, motivation drop after 2–3 months).

Interactions

SSRIs, SNRIs, MAOIs, tramadol, triptans — serotonin syndrome risk. Carbidopa — interaction reported. Sedatives — additive drowsiness.

Contraindications

On serotonergic medications (most antidepressants, tramadol, migraine triptans, MDMA / ecstasy) — do not combine. Carcinoid syndrome. Down syndrome (5-HTP has caused seizures in some). Pregnancy / lactation.

Lab markers

Not standard. Subjective tracking. Hamilton Depression Scale in clinical contexts.

Food sources

Not present in food directly — the body makes it from dietary tryptophan.

The primary fuel for the cells lining your gut. Heals leaky gut, supports immune function, and aids recovery from intense training.

L-Glutamine is the most abundant free amino acid in the bloodstream and the primary energy source for enterocytes (the cells lining your intestines) and lymphocytes (immune cells). It's technically non-essential (the body makes some), but becomes conditionally essential under stress — illness, injury, intense exercise, gut inflammation. Most clinically useful for gut barrier repair (leaky gut, IBD, post-antibiotic recovery), immune support during heavy training, and post-surgery healing. Less convincing for general muscle building, despite the bodybuilding-supplement reputation.

Form

L-Glutamine powder — slightly sweet, dissolves in water. Capsules also fine but less practical for higher doses.

Dose

5 g/day for general gut support. 10–20 g/day for active leaky gut, IBD, or post-antibiotic recovery (split across the day). 5–10 g post-workout for athletes in heavy training.

Timing

Empty stomach for gut effects (between meals, or first thing AM). With water or in a smoothie. Post-workout for recovery use.

Schedule

Daily during a gut-repair protocol (typically 4–12 weeks). Ongoing for athletes in heavy training.

Side effects

Generally very well-tolerated. Mild GI upset uncommon. Some report increased thirst.

Interactions

Lactulose (used in hepatic encephalopathy — glutamine can worsen). Anti-seizure medications (theoretical glutamate-related interaction).

Contraindications

Cirrhosis with hepatic encephalopathy — glutamine converts to ammonia, can worsen encephalopathy. Reye's syndrome history. Some seizure disorders (excitatory amino acid concern).

Lab markers

Not routinely tested. Functional markers: intestinal permeability (lactulose-mannitol ratio), zonulin, calprotectin if monitoring gut inflammation.

Food sources

Beef, eggs, fish, dairy (cottage cheese, yogurt), beans, cabbage, spinach, parsley. Whey protein is glutamine-rich. Most omnivores get plenty from food; supplementation targets clinical doses.

Shuttles fatty acids into mitochondria where they're burned for energy. Useful for fat metabolism, exercise recovery, and (the acetyl form) brain energy.

L-Carnitine is a small molecule made from lysine and methionine that ferries long-chain fatty acids across the mitochondrial membrane so they can be oxidised for energy. Without it, fat can't be efficiently used as fuel. The body makes some and gets the rest from animal foods (the name comes from 'carnis' — flesh). Supplemental forms have distinct uses: standard L-carnitine for fat metabolism and cardiovascular support; acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR) crosses the blood-brain barrier and supports cognitive energy; propionyl-L-carnitine targets cardiac and vascular tissue specifically. Vegetarians have measurably lower carnitine and may benefit most.

Form

L-Carnitine tartrate — standard, well-absorbed, general use. Acetyl-L-Carnitine (ALCAR) — crosses blood-brain barrier, cognitive and mood support. Propionyl-L-Carnitine — cardiac and peripheral vascular (intermittent claudication, angina). L-Carnitine L-Tartrate — preferred for exercise recovery.

Dose

L-Carnitine: 1–3 g/day. ALCAR: 500 mg–2 g/day. Propionyl: 1–2 g/day.

Timing

With food (improves absorption significantly — fat-containing meal best). ALCAR can be mildly stimulating — AM. Split high doses across the day.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Fishy body odor at high doses (trimethylamine production). Nausea, mild GI upset, vivid dreams.

Interactions

Warfarin — may potentiate (monitor INR). Thyroid hormone — high-dose carnitine can blunt thyroid hormone action at receptors (relevant in hyperthyroidism, less so otherwise).

Contraindications

Hypothyroidism (relative — may worsen). Active seizure disorder (mixed evidence). Pregnancy / lactation — limited safety data above food intake.

Lab markers

Plasma free carnitine and acylcarnitines (research / clinical for documented deficiency). Triglycerides, free fatty acids for metabolic tracking.

Food sources

Red meat (especially beef) — by far the richest source, ~80 mg per 4 oz. Pork, fish, chicken, dairy. Plant foods have very little. Vegetarians often run 30–50% lower body stores.

A precursor to carnosine, the muscle buffer that delays fatigue. The supplement that gives you the tingles — and modest but real performance gains.

Beta-alanine is a non-proteinogenic amino acid that combines with histidine in muscle to form carnosine — a buffer that resists the lactic acid build-up driving fatigue during high-intensity efforts. Supplementing beta-alanine raises muscle carnosine by 60–80% over 4–10 weeks, which translates into measurable performance gains in efforts lasting 1–4 minutes (rowing, sprinting, high-rep weightlifting, swimming intervals). It's the supplement responsible for the harmless tingling sensation (paresthesia) in pre-workout formulas. Not useful for endurance events longer than a few minutes; not useful for pure strength (single max effort).

Form

Plain beta-alanine capsules or powder. Sustained-release beta-alanine (CarnoSyn SR) reduces the tingling by avoiding the spike.

Dose

3.2–6.4 g/day, split into 1.6 g doses across the day to minimise tingling. Loading phase doesn't help — saturation takes 4–10 weeks regardless of dose pattern.

Timing

Anytime, with food. Pre-workout is convention but not necessary (it's the chronic muscle carnosine that matters, not acute presence). Split smaller doses across the day to reduce tingling.

Schedule

Daily, ongoing during a training cycle. Stays in muscle for ~9 weeks after stopping.

Side effects

Paresthesia (tingling) — face, scalp, hands — harmless but uncomfortable. Reduce per-dose to <1.6 g or use sustained-release. No other notable side effects at studied doses.

Interactions

Generally clean. Taurine — competes with beta-alanine for cellular uptake; if running both, separate.

Contraindications

None significant in healthy adults.

Lab markers

Muscle carnosine (research-grade, not routinely tested). Performance tracking is the practical measure.

Food sources

Chicken, beef, fish, pork. Vegetarians have measurably lower muscle carnosine and benefit most from supplementation.

A leucine metabolite that reduces muscle breakdown. Most useful in catabolic states — illness, aggressive caloric restriction, older adults losing lean mass.

HMB is a metabolite of the branched-chain amino acid leucine. The body produces a small amount; supplementation raises levels meaningfully. Its primary effect is anti-catabolic — reducing muscle protein breakdown. Most useful in catabolic contexts: aggressive cutting / dieting, post-injury recovery, older adults losing lean mass (sarcopenia), critical illness recovery, and aggressive training phases. Less impressive in young, well-fed, recreationally training adults (creatine outperforms it for muscle building in healthy users).

Form

HMB free acid (faster absorption) or HMB calcium (cheaper, slower).

Dose

3 g/day, split into 1 g doses across the day.

Timing

With meals, split throughout the day. Pre-workout for training days.

Schedule

Daily during catabolic phases or aggressive cutting.

Side effects

Generally very well-tolerated. Mild GI upset rare.

Interactions

Generally clean.

Contraindications

None significant.

Lab markers

Body composition, lean mass tracking.

Food sources

Trace amounts in grapefruit, alfalfa, catfish — far below supplemental doses.

Branched-chain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, valine) — the muscle-building amino acids. Mostly redundant if you eat enough complete protein; useful in specific cases.

BCAAs are leucine, isoleucine, and valine — the three branched-chain amino acids your body can't make. Leucine in particular triggers muscle protein synthesis via mTOR. The marketing case: drink BCAAs around workouts to build muscle. The reality: if you eat enough complete protein (1.6–2.2 g/kg body weight), additional BCAAs don't measurably build more muscle — you already have plenty. EAAs (essential amino acids) — which include BCAAs plus the other six — are more effective when used as a complete protein substitute (fasted training, between meals on a low-protein day, vegan athletes). For most well-fed lifters, BCAAs are an expensive way to get something you already have.

Form

BCAAs in 2:1:1 ratio (leucine:isoleucine:valine). EAAs with all nine essential amino acids — more useful.

Dose

BCAAs: 5–20 g pre / intra-workout. EAAs: 10–15 g.

Timing

Around workouts, especially fasted training. Sip during prolonged sessions.

Schedule

On training days, when needed. Not foundational.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, weight gain (calories).

Interactions

Generally clean. May modestly affect serotonin / tryptophan transport.

Contraindications

Maple syrup urine disease (rare genetic BCAA disorder). ALS (theoretical — BCAAs investigated as both helpful and possibly harmful). Pregnancy (limited high-dose data).

Lab markers

Body composition, performance tracking.

Food sources

Whey protein, eggs, beef, chicken, fish, dairy, legumes all contain BCAAs and EAAs at high levels. A 25–30 g serving of whey delivers more BCAAs than a typical scoop of BCAA powder.

The most abundant protein in the body, the structural matrix of skin, joints, tendons, bone, and gut. Endogenous production drops ~1% per year from your 20s.

Collagen is what holds you together. ~30% of all protein in the body is collagen — it's the scaffolding of skin, the ground substance of cartilage, the connective sheath of muscle, the matrix of bone, the lining of the gut. The body makes its own from glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline (using vitamin C as a cofactor), but production declines steadily with age and drops sharply at menopause. Hydrolysed collagen peptides are pre-broken-down so they absorb as small peptides that accumulate in skin and joints, where they signal fibroblasts and chondrocytes to make more collagen. The 'eating collagen builds collagen' mechanism was once dismissed but has been validated repeatedly in the last decade.

Form

Hydrolysed collagen peptides (Types I + III) — best for skin, hair, nails, general structural support. UC-II (undenatured Type II collagen) — different mechanism (immune-tolerance pathway), specifically for joint pain at much lower dose (40 mg/day). Marine collagen is similar to bovine but smaller peptides; both work.

Dose

10–15 g hydrolysed collagen peptides daily for skin / general use. 40 mg UC-II daily for joint pain.

Timing

Anytime, with or without food. Most people add to morning coffee or a smoothie. Take vitamin C with it to support collagen synthesis.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Mild GI upset (rare). Fishy taste (marine collagen). Fullness / satiety.

Interactions

Generally none. Calcium content in some products may compete with thyroid medications — separate by 4 hours.

Contraindications

Allergy to source animal (bovine, marine, porcine, chicken). Very rare.

Lab markers

Not routinely tested. Functional markers: skin elasticity (cutometer), DEXA for bone density.

Food sources

Bone broth (long-simmered with bones and connective tissue — the traditional source). Skin-on chicken, slow-cooked tough cuts of meat (brisket, shank, oxtail), gelatin, pork rinds. Modern muscle-meat-heavy diets contain almost no collagen — even a meat eater can be functionally collagen-deficient.

The most evidence-backed nutritional supplement on the market. Anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, neuroprotective — and almost everyone is under-eating it.

Omega-3 fatty acids are essential — the body can't make them, you have to eat them. The two that matter most are EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid), found in fatty fish. EPA drives the anti-inflammatory and mood-related effects through its conversion to specialised pro-resolving mediators that actively switch off inflammation. DHA is structural — a major component of brain cell membranes and the retina. Modern diets are heavy in pro-inflammatory omega-6 (seed oils, processed food) and light in omega-3. Bringing the ratio back in balance is one of the highest-leverage dietary interventions, and supplementation is the simplest way to do it.

Form

Triglyceride (TG) form is most bioavailable — reads as 'Triglyceride' or 'Natural' or 're-esterified TG' on the label. Ethyl ester (EE) is cheaper and slightly less bioavailable but fine if taken with a meal. Krill oil (phospholipid form) absorbs well and includes astaxanthin, but is expensive per gram of EPA/DHA. Algae oil for vegans (DHA-rich, lower EPA). Look for third-party tested products (IFOS or NSF) to avoid heavy metals and rancidity.

Dose

1 g combined EPA+DHA per day for general maintenance. 2–4 g per day for therapeutic effect (depression, inflammation, autoimmune support, triglyceride lowering). Read the label carefully — '1000 mg fish oil' often means only 300 mg actual EPA+DHA.

Timing

With the largest fat-containing meal of the day. Morning typically. Refrigerating capsules and taking with food reduces 'fishy burps'.

Schedule

Daily, ongoing. Stable replacement, not cycled.

Side effects

Fishy burps or aftertaste (mitigated by freezing capsules, taking with meal, or switching to enteric-coated). Mild loose stools at higher doses. Rarely, mild fish allergy reactions.

Interactions

Anticoagulants and antiplatelets (warfarin, aspirin, clopidogrel, DOACs) — omega-3 mildly thins the blood. At moderate doses (1–2 g/day) the effect is small; at high doses (>3 g/day) it can become clinically meaningful. Discuss with prescriber. Reduces blood pressure modestly — additive with antihypertensives.

Contraindications

Active bleeding disorders. Planned surgery — stop 7–14 days before. True fish allergy (krill oil is also shellfish-derived — use algae instead).

Lab markers

Omega-3 Index — RBC membrane EPA+DHA as percentage of total fatty acids. The single most useful marker. Target: 8–12%. Below 4% is a documented cardiovascular risk factor. Easily testable through OmegaQuant and similar labs. Triglycerides (general lipid panel) also drop measurably with adequate omega-3.

Food sources

Fatty cold-water fish 2–3 servings per week: salmon (especially wild Alaskan), sardines, mackerel, herring, anchovies, trout. Cod liver oil (also high in A and D). Caviar. ALA from flax, chia, walnuts, hemp — but conversion to EPA/DHA in the body is poor (~5–10% to EPA, <0.5% to DHA), so don't rely on plant sources for the EPA/DHA your body actually uses.

Omega-3s in phospholipid form — better absorbed than standard fish oil and bundled with astaxanthin and choline. Premium price, premium delivery.

Krill oil delivers EPA and DHA bound to phospholipids rather than the triglycerides that fish oil uses. Phospholipid-bound omega-3s slot directly into cell membranes and integrate faster — milligram for milligram, krill raises the omega-3 index more than standard fish oil. The catch: krill oil is much more expensive per gram of EPA+DHA than fish oil, and most products provide lower absolute doses (200–300 mg combined per serving versus 1,000+ mg from a decent fish oil). The bundled astaxanthin and phosphatidylcholine are nice extras. Choose krill if absorption / no fishy burps matter; choose fish oil if dose-per-dollar is the constraint.

Form

Cold-pressed krill oil (Antarctic Euphausia superba) from MSC-certified sustainable sources. Look for Superba or NKO branded products.

Dose

1–2 g krill oil/day (delivering 200–500 mg EPA+DHA). For higher omega-3 needs, combine with fish oil.

Timing

With a meal. Anytime.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Less fishy burps than standard fish oil. Mild GI upset rare.

Interactions

Anticoagulants and antiplatelets — additive mild blood-thinning. Stop 7–14 days before surgery.

Contraindications

Shellfish allergy (krill is a crustacean). Bleeding disorders. Active gout (krill contains purines).

Lab markers

Omega-3 index (RBC EPA+DHA). Triglycerides.

Food sources

Krill itself isn't widely eaten as food. The omega-3s in krill come from the same algae base as fish — eating fatty fish gets you to the same fatty acids via a different package.

A traditional three-in-one: omega-3 EPA+DHA, vitamin D, and vitamin A from the liver of cod. Particularly useful for those who already need D and A.

Cod liver oil was the original 'health tonic' before the modern supplement industry existed. The liver of cold-water cod stores significant vitamin A, vitamin D, and the long-chain omega-3s EPA and DHA — making cod liver oil a unique all-in-one. It's especially relevant in winter (less sun → less vitamin D), for those with limited fish intake, and as part of traditional dietary protocols (Weston A. Price, Scandinavian customs). Watch the A content — too much vitamin A becomes a concern with daily long-term use.

Form

Fermented cod liver oil (Green Pasture is the well-known brand — traditionalists' favourite). Standard cod liver oil from reputable brands (Carlson, Nordic Naturals — pleasantly flavoured). Check the label for vitamin A and D content per serving.

Dose

1 teaspoon to 1 tablespoon daily, depending on product strength. Read the label for vitamin A — keep total daily intake (including from food and multivitamins) under 10,000 IU.

Timing

With a fat-containing meal. AM typical.

Schedule

Daily, especially in winter months. Some traditional protocols cycle off in summer when sun exposure provides D.

Side effects

Fishy aftertaste. Mild GI upset. Vitamin A toxicity at high chronic doses (headache, dry skin, hair loss).

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild additive (omega-3). Acne retinoids (isotretinoin) — additive vitamin A toxicity. Other vitamin A or D supplements — total it all up to stay in range.

Contraindications

Pregnancy (>10,000 IU vitamin A is teratogenic — most cod liver oil products are OK at standard doses, but check). Hypervitaminosis A or D. Hemochromatosis.

Lab markers

25-OH-D, omega-3 index, lipids. Serum retinol if running high-dose long-term.

Food sources

Cod liver oil IS a food in many traditions. The closest food equivalent is eating the livers of cold-water fish directly (cod, halibut, salmon).

An omega-6 that actually reduces inflammation. The exception to the 'reduce omega-6' rule — used for PMS, eczema, dry eye, and joint inflammation.

Most omega-6 fatty acids are pro-inflammatory (linoleic acid from seed oils), but GLA is a notable exception. The body converts it to dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA), which generates anti-inflammatory prostaglandins. It's the active compound in evening primrose oil, borage oil, and black currant seed oil — used for decades for PMS (especially breast tenderness), eczema, dry eye, and inflammatory arthritis. Best evidence is in dry eye and atopic dermatitis. Conversion to DGLA requires adequate B6, magnesium, and zinc — deficiencies in those nutrients blunt GLA's effects.

Form

Borage oil (highest GLA concentration ~20–24%) — most dose-efficient. Evening primrose oil (8–10% GLA) — better-studied historically. Black currant seed oil (15–17% GLA + some omega-3 ALA).

Dose

300–600 mg GLA daily. Borage oil: 1,000–2,000 mg of oil delivers the target dose. Evening primrose: 3,000–6,000 mg of oil.

Timing

With food. Anytime.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, soft stool, headache. Borage oil contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids in raw form — use only PA-free certified products.

Interactions

Anticoagulants and antiplatelets — mild additive blood-thinning. Anti-seizure medications (phenothiazines especially) — theoretical seizure-threshold lowering.

Contraindications

Seizure disorders (relative — evening primrose has been associated with rare seizures). Pregnancy (limited safety data above food intake). Pre-surgery (stop 7–14 days before).

Lab markers

Not standard. Functional: dry eye symptoms, eczema scoring, joint pain.

Food sources

GLA isn't found in significant amounts in everyday food — only in specific seeds (borage, evening primrose, black currant, hemp). Hemp seeds are the most accessible food source.

Medium-chain triglycerides — fats that bypass normal digestion and go straight to the liver, where they become ketones for quick brain energy.

Medium-chain triglycerides are fats with 6–12 carbon chains (versus the 14–24 of most dietary fats). They skip lymphatic absorption, go directly to the liver via the portal vein, and are rapidly converted to ketones — alternative fuel for the brain and muscles, especially useful when glucose is restricted. C8 (caprylic acid) and C10 (capric acid) are the most ketogenic. The famous 'butter coffee' effect comes from MCTs. Most useful for ketogenic dieters, cognitive support during intermittent fasting, and as quick energy that doesn't require digestion. Start small — full doses on a naive gut produce a fast and unpleasant experience.

Form

C8-only (caprylic acid) MCT oil — most ketogenic, cleanest. C8/C10 blend — slightly cheaper, still effective. Coconut oil contains ~50% MCTs but mostly C12 (lauric acid), which acts more like a long-chain fat — less effective per gram. MCT powder for travel / mixing into drinks.

Dose

1–2 teaspoons (5–10 g) initially, building to 1–2 tablespoons (15–30 g) daily as tolerated.

Timing

AM in coffee for sustained cognitive energy. Pre-workout. With meals to slow digestion and improve satiety.

Schedule

Daily as part of a ketogenic / low-carb diet. Anytime for cognitive use.

Side effects

'Disaster pants' — the classic over-dose effect. Cramps, urgent diarrhea, GI upset. Start small (1 tsp) and titrate up. Most people adapt over 1–2 weeks.

Interactions

Generally clean. Coumadin / warfarin — theoretical mild interaction. Some diabetes medications — additive on glucose control.

Contraindications

Liver disease (rare — MCTs are processed by the liver). Active gastroparesis. Caution in those with extreme caloric restriction or eating disorders (ketones can suppress hunger).

Lab markers

Blood ketones (beta-hydroxybutyrate) for ketogenic tracking. Lipid panel periodically.

Food sources

Coconut oil and palm kernel oil contain MCTs naturally (mostly C12, less effective). Whole coconut and full-fat dairy contain small amounts. MCT oil itself is a refined product, not a whole food.

An odd-chain saturated fatty acid that may be the first essential fatty acid identified in 90 years. Emerging evidence; not yet established.

C15:0 (pentadecanoic acid) is a saturated fatty acid found in whole-fat dairy. Researcher Stephanie Venn-Watson and team proposed in 2020 that low C15:0 levels may underlie a 'Cellular Fragility Syndrome' that accelerates aging, and that supplementation reverses biomarker changes associated with metabolic decline. The branded form (Fatty15) is C15:0 in pure form. Early human trials are showing improvements in liver fat, red blood cell membrane integrity, and inflammatory markers. The claim that C15:0 is 'the first essential fatty acid discovered since omega-3 in the 1930s' is bold and not universally accepted. Treat as promising-but-emerging.

Form

Fatty15 (branded pure C15:0). Generic versions becoming available. Or consume whole-fat dairy.

Dose

100 mg/day (the Fatty15 dose). Up to 300 mg/day in some emerging research.

Timing

With a meal. Once daily.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset rare.

Interactions

No established interactions. Limited data.

Contraindications

Pregnancy / lactation — limited safety data. Active liver disease (caution).

Lab markers

C15:0 in red blood cell membrane (specialty labs offer this — useful baseline + follow-up). Liver enzymes if tracking liver outcomes.

Food sources

Whole-fat dairy (butter, full-fat milk, full-fat yogurt, cheese) is the primary food source. Some grass-fed beef. The shift away from full-fat dairy in modern diets may be why C15:0 levels have dropped at population scale.

The active compound in turmeric. One of the most evidence-backed natural anti-inflammatories — but only in bioavailable forms. Plain turmeric powder barely absorbs.

Curcumin is the yellow polyphenol in turmeric root. It's a broad-spectrum anti-inflammatory that suppresses NF-κB (the master inflammation transcription factor), modulates eicosanoid synthesis, and acts as an antioxidant. Trial evidence supports use in osteoarthritis (comparable to NSAIDs in head-to-head trials), depression (adjunct), inflammatory bowel disease, metabolic syndrome, and post-exercise recovery. The catch: plain curcumin has terrible oral bioavailability — gut absorption is so poor that drugstore turmeric capsules deliver essentially nothing. Modern formulations (Meriva, Theracurmin, Longvida, with-piperine) solve this with various delivery technologies.

Form

Meriva (curcumin-phosphatidylcholine complex) — 18–29x more bioavailable than plain curcumin, most-studied bioavailable form. Theracurmin (nanoparticle) — also high bioavailability. Longvida (lipid-encapsulated) — best for brain penetration. Curcumin + piperine (black pepper extract) — old-school enhancer; less powerful than the patented forms. Avoid plain 'turmeric extract' without enhancement.

Dose

Meriva: 500–1,000 mg 1–2x daily. Theracurmin: 90–180 mg/day. Longvida: 400–1,000 mg/day. With-piperine: 500–1,500 mg curcumin + 5–20 mg piperine.

Timing

With a fat-containing meal (fat-soluble). 1–2x daily for higher doses.

Schedule

Daily. Cycle off periodically (4 weeks on, 1 off) is optional.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. GI upset, nausea, mild diarrhea in some. Yellow stool (harmless). Rare allergic skin reaction.

Interactions

Anticoagulants and antiplatelets — mild antiplatelet effect, additive (warfarin, aspirin, clopidogrel). Diabetes medications — additive glucose lowering. Iron — chelates iron, can worsen deficiency. Reduces gallbladder contraction (caution with gallstones).

Contraindications

Gallstones / bile duct obstruction (stimulates bile flow). Bleeding disorders. Planned surgery — stop 7–14 days before. Iron deficiency anemia.

Lab markers

hs-CRP (high-sensitivity C-reactive protein) — should drop with consistent curcumin if elevated. ESR. Lipid panel may improve modestly.

Food sources

Turmeric root or powder in food — culinary doses (1/4 to 1 tsp daily) provide health benefits over time, especially when cooked with fat and black pepper. Not enough for therapeutic effect on its own; supplementation is needed for that.

A bioflavonoid that calms allergic and immune responses, acts as a mild senolytic, and serves as a zinc ionophore — helping zinc get into cells where it does its work.

Quercetin is a flavonoid found in onions, apples, capers, and many berries. It has three distinct supplement uses. First, it stabilises mast cells (reducing histamine release) — useful for seasonal allergies and chronic inflammation. Second, it acts as a zinc ionophore, shuttling zinc across cell membranes — relevant to immune support and the antiviral mechanism that put it in the spotlight during COVID. Third, in combination with dasatinib (a leukemia drug), it has senolytic activity — selectively killing senescent 'zombie' cells. Standalone quercetin is on the milder end of supplements; its value mostly emerges in combinations.

Form

Quercetin phytosome (Quercefit) — significantly better absorbed than plain quercetin (~20x). Quercetin + bromelain — traditional pairing for absorption and additional anti-inflammatory action. Plain quercetin dihydrate works but absorbs poorly.

Dose

500–1,000 mg/day for general use. 250–500 mg of Quercefit equivalent. Senolytic protocols use 1,000 mg × 2 days at a time, intermittent.

Timing

With food. AM or split AM/PM.

Schedule

Daily for allergy / immune support. Intermittent (e.g. 2 days every 2 weeks) for senolytic use.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Headache, GI upset, tingling at high doses. Yellow discolouration of urine.

Interactions

Cyclosporine (raises levels significantly). CYP3A4 substrates generally — quercetin is a moderate CYP3A4 inhibitor. Anticoagulants (mild additive). Antibiotics (quinolones — opposing antimicrobial effect at gut level).

Contraindications

Pre-existing kidney impairment (high doses caused renal toxicity in some early studies). On cyclosporine or other narrow-therapeutic-window drugs.

Lab markers

Not typically tested.

Food sources

Capers (extremely high), red onions, apples (with skin), kale, broccoli, berries (especially elderberry, cranberry, lingonberry), red wine, green tea, buckwheat. Onions are the most practical source — one large red onion delivers ~50 mg.

The body's master antioxidant. Most oral forms barely absorb — the trick is in the delivery (liposomal, S-acetyl, IV, or build it from precursors).

Glutathione (GSH) is a tripeptide of glycine, cysteine, and glutamate that every cell makes and uses as its primary intracellular antioxidant. It neutralises free radicals, regenerates vitamins C and E, drives Phase II liver detoxification (conjugating toxins for excretion), and modulates immune function. Levels drop with age, illness, oxidative stress, and certain medications. Direct oral glutathione absorbs poorly (digestive enzymes break it apart), so most clinically-useful supplementation either uses advanced delivery forms (liposomal, S-acetyl) or supplies precursors (NAC, glycine) that let the body build its own.

Form

Liposomal glutathione — the most practical oral form; phospholipid encapsulation protects it through digestion. S-acetyl glutathione — also absorbs well, stable. NAC + glycine (GlyNAC) — the precursor approach, often more cost-effective. Sublingual / nebulised for specific use cases. IV glutathione for therapeutic doses. Plain reduced-GSH capsules are largely a waste.

Dose

Liposomal: 250–500 mg/day. S-acetyl: 100–300 mg/day. GlyNAC (precursor approach): 100 mg/kg/day each of glycine and NAC.

Timing

Empty stomach for liposomal (away from food for 20–30 min before/after). AM typical.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Sulfur smell. Some report rash, asthma exacerbation (with inhaled form), or paradoxical fatigue.

Interactions

Chemotherapy (debated — may reduce efficacy of some agents). Generally clean.

Contraindications

Active asthma (caution with inhaled form). Pregnancy / lactation — limited data, default to caution.

Lab markers

Whole-blood glutathione (research-grade). GSH:GSSG ratio (reduced vs oxidised — better marker of redox status). 8-OHdG, F2-isoprostanes (oxidative stress markers).

Food sources

Asparagus, avocado, spinach, okra contain glutathione directly. Whey protein, eggs, garlic, onions, brassicas (broccoli, kale, Brussels sprouts) provide cysteine precursor. Cooking destroys most food glutathione.

A unique antioxidant — works in both water and fat compartments, regenerates other antioxidants, and improves insulin sensitivity. Best evidence is in diabetic neuropathy.

Alpha-lipoic acid is a small sulfur-containing molecule the body makes in small amounts and uses inside mitochondria to help generate energy. As a supplement it crosses both water- and fat-soluble barriers — unusual for an antioxidant — letting it work in blood, cell membranes, and intracellular compartments. It also regenerates oxidised forms of vitamins C and E and glutathione. The most established clinical use is diabetic peripheral neuropathy (approved as a drug in Germany), with secondary uses in metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and brain fog. Two forms exist: R-ALA (the natural, bioactive isomer) and synthetic 50:50 R/S-ALA — the R form is more potent.

Form

R-ALA (R-alpha-lipoic acid) or Na-R-ALA (stabilised sodium R-lipoate) — the active form, more bioavailable. R/S-ALA (cheaper, racemic) works but at higher doses.

Dose

R-ALA: 100–300 mg/day. R/S-ALA: 300–600 mg/day (1–2x daily). Therapeutic for neuropathy: 600 mg twice daily of R/S-ALA.

Timing

Empty stomach for best absorption (food reduces it ~30%). 30–60 min before meals. AM or pre-meal.

Schedule

Daily. Some users cycle (3 months on, 1 off) for sustained sensitivity.

Side effects

Mild GI upset, rash, hypoglycemia (especially if diabetic), skin reactions. Rarely insulin autoimmune syndrome (in genetically predisposed individuals — mostly Japanese / Korean populations).

Interactions

Diabetes medications — additive glucose lowering, watch for hypoglycemia. Thyroid medications — may bind and reduce absorption (separate by 4 hours). Chemotherapy — interaction debated.

Contraindications

Thiamine deficiency / chronic alcohol use (can precipitate Wernicke's — supplement thiamine first). Insulin autoimmune syndrome history.

Lab markers

Fasting insulin, HbA1c, fasting glucose for metabolic tracking.

Food sources

Spinach, broccoli, red meat, organ meats (liver, heart, kidney), brewer's yeast. Food sources provide micrograms — therapeutic effect requires supplementation.

The famous red-wine compound. Activates sirtuins, supports cardiovascular function, and (the Sinclair theory) helps NMN do its longevity work.

Resveratrol is a polyphenol produced by grapes, berries, and Japanese knotweed in response to stress. It captured public attention via the 'French Paradox' and David Sinclair's longevity research, where resveratrol was shown to activate sirtuins (the gene-silencing longevity proteins) and extend lifespan in yeast, worms, flies, and obese mice. Translation to humans has been bumpier — at the doses you can practically reach orally, sirtuin activation is modest. Where it consistently helps: vascular function, modest LDL improvement, insulin sensitivity, and (in Sinclair's protocol) as a sirtuin co-activator alongside NMN.

Form

Trans-resveratrol — the bioactive isomer (cis-resveratrol is largely inactive). Look for ≥98% trans- on the label. Resveratrol + pterostilbene blends — pterostilbene is more bioavailable and has longer half-life. Micronized / liposomal forms also help with absorption.

Dose

250–500 mg/day of trans-resveratrol. Sinclair protocol uses 1 g/day pre-bed, dissolved in fat (e.g. yogurt) for absorption.

Timing

AM with a fat-containing meal (resveratrol is fat-soluble). Sinclair takes it with yogurt for absorption.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. GI upset, nausea at high doses. Mild estrogenic activity in some studies.

Interactions

Anticoagulants and antiplatelets — additive mild blood-thinning. CYP3A4 substrates — resveratrol is a moderate inhibitor; can elevate levels of statins, calcium channel blockers, immunosuppressants. Estrogen-sensitive medications — theoretical interaction.

Contraindications

Hormone-sensitive cancers (caution due to mild estrogenic activity). Bleeding disorders. Pre-surgery (stop 7–14 days before).

Lab markers

Not standard. CRP, LDL, BP, fasting glucose for tracking general effects.

Food sources

Red wine (small amounts — you'd need 1,000+ glasses for therapeutic dose), red grapes (skins especially), blueberries, raspberries, cranberries, peanuts. Japanese knotweed is the commercial supplement source.

The most-studied natural senolytic — a compound that selectively kills senescent 'zombie' cells. Pulsed protocols are how it's usually run.

Fisetin is a flavonol found in strawberries, apples, and persimmons. Mayo Clinic research (Yousefzadeh et al., 2018) screened a library of flavonoids and identified fisetin as the most potent natural senolytic — meaning it selectively triggers apoptosis in senescent cells (damaged cells that have stopped dividing but secrete inflammatory signals, driving aging and chronic disease). The senolytic dose is high and pulsed (2 days per month or so), rather than daily — the idea being to clear senescent cells periodically rather than continuously. Also has standalone antioxidant and neuroprotective activity, and is used in some Alzheimer's research protocols.

Form

Fisetin capsules — usually 100–500 mg per serving. Liposomal or with-piperine for absorption (fisetin has poor bioavailability on its own).

Dose

Senolytic pulse: 1,000–1,500 mg/day for 2 consecutive days, repeated every 2–4 weeks. Daily low-dose: 100–200 mg/day for general antioxidant / neuroprotective use.

Timing

With food, especially fat-containing. Split high doses across the day.

Schedule

Pulsed (2 days, then 2–4 weeks off) for senolytic protocols. Daily for low-dose neuroprotection.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated even at pulse doses. Mild GI upset, headache.

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild additive. CYP enzyme substrates — possible interactions (limited data).

Contraindications

Pregnancy / lactation (no data). Active cancer / chemotherapy (discuss with oncologist — senolytics could theoretically interact). Bleeding disorders.

Lab markers

Not standard. Inflammatory markers (CRP, IL-6) and senescence biomarkers (p16INK4a) in research contexts.

Food sources

Strawberries (the richest dietary source), apples (with skin), persimmons, onions, grapes, cucumber. Even a strawberry-heavy day delivers only milligrams — therapeutic effect requires supplementation.

The main bioactive in green tea. Powerful antioxidant with metabolic and cancer-prevention signals — but high-dose extracts carry real liver risk.

EGCG (epigallocatechin gallate) is the most abundant and most active catechin in green tea. It's a potent antioxidant and signals through multiple longevity-relevant pathways — modulating mTOR, AMPK, and several gene expression programs. Population studies link green tea consumption to reduced cardiovascular disease, certain cancers, and overall mortality. High-dose concentrated extracts deliver more EGCG than tea drinking ever could, which is both the point and the risk: concentrated EGCG has caused liver toxicity in some users. Drinking green tea is essentially risk-free. Taking extracts requires more care.

Form

Standardised green tea extract with EGCG content specified (usually 45–98%). Decaffeinated versions exist if caffeine is an issue. Drinking green tea is the safest delivery — 2–4 cups daily provides meaningful EGCG with no toxicity risk.

Dose

Standardised extract: 300–500 mg EGCG/day. Don't exceed 800 mg/day (liver toxicity ceiling per EFSA review). Tea drinkers: 2–4 cups of high-quality green tea daily.

Timing

Take with food — empty-stomach concentrated EGCG is most strongly associated with liver toxicity. AM typical.

Schedule

Daily. Periodic breaks (1–2 weeks every few months) optional.

Side effects

Liver toxicity is the major concern — usually with concentrated extracts on empty stomach. Symptoms: jaundice, dark urine, abdominal pain — stop and see a doctor. GI upset, headache, insomnia (from caffeine in non-decaf versions).

Interactions

Iron — EGCG significantly reduces non-heme iron absorption; separate by 2 hours. Anticoagulants — mild additive blood-thinning. Statins, calcium channel blockers — CYP enzyme interactions. Bortezomib (cancer drug) — EGCG opposes its action; avoid.

Contraindications

Pre-existing liver disease. History of EGCG-related liver injury. Iron deficiency anemia (relative). Pregnancy (limited safety data for concentrated extracts).

Lab markers

Liver enzymes (ALT, AST) at baseline and 8–12 weeks of high-dose extract use.

Food sources

Green tea (matcha is the highest), white tea, oolong tea. Black tea has much less. 2–4 cups daily of brewed green tea is the safest, most-validated way to consume EGCG.

The most potent natural Nrf2 activator known — switches on the body's master detoxification and antioxidant defence program. Derived from broccoli sprouts.

Sulforaphane is an isothiocyanate produced when you chew or chop cruciferous vegetables — particularly broccoli sprouts, which contain 10–100x more of its precursor (glucoraphanin) than mature broccoli. It activates Nrf2 (Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2), the master switch for the body's Phase II detoxification enzymes, antioxidant defences, and anti-inflammatory pathways. Effects are broad: improved detoxification of carcinogens, reduced oxidative stress, modulation of inflammation, and potential anti-cancer effects (particularly against breast, prostate, and bladder cancers). Sulforaphane is one of the most-studied phytochemicals in cancer prevention research — most prominently championed by Dr. Jed Fahey at Johns Hopkins.

Form

Broccoli sprout extract standardised to active sulforaphane (BroccoMax, Avmacol). Fresh broccoli sprouts (3–7 days old) — the original source, can grow at home cheaply. Sulforaphane + myrosinase enzyme products (without the enzyme, glucoraphanin doesn't convert efficiently).

Dose

10–40 mg/day of active sulforaphane from extracts. Broccoli sprouts: ~100 g (1/2 cup) daily provides therapeutic doses.

Timing

Anytime. With food generally fine. Heat destroys sulforaphane — eat sprouts raw or steam briefly.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, gas (from cruciferous compounds). Body / breath odor in some.

Interactions

Acetaminophen — sulforaphane induces enzymes that may alter metabolism. Anticoagulants (broccoli is K-rich — caution if eating large amounts of sprouts on warfarin).

Contraindications

Hypothyroidism (raw cruciferous in very large amounts can be goitrogenic — cooking neutralises this; supplements are generally fine at standard doses). Active malabsorption.

Lab markers

Not standard. Functional / research markers: GSH (glutathione), 8-OHdG, urinary sulforaphane metabolites.

Food sources

Broccoli sprouts (extraordinary concentration), broccoli, brussels sprouts, cauliflower, kale, cabbage, bok choy, watercress, mustard greens, daikon radish. Chewing thoroughly activates the conversion enzyme — bolting them down whole reduces yield.

An exceptionally potent antioxidant — the red pigment that turns salmon and flamingos pink. Best evidence is for skin UV protection and eye health.

Astaxanthin is a carotenoid produced by the microalga Haematococcus pluvialis (and the source of pink colour in salmon, krill, shrimp, and flamingos that eat it). Unlike most antioxidants, astaxanthin sits across the cell membrane — protecting both the water and fat-soluble sides simultaneously. Its antioxidant potency is impressive (10x more than beta-carotene, 100x more than vitamin E by some measures), though raw antioxidant potency doesn't always translate to clinical benefit. Strongest evidence is for skin UV protection (oral, taken daily), eye fatigue from screen time, and modest cardiovascular markers.

Form

Natural astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis algae — what all studies use. Synthetic astaxanthin (different stereoisomer) is used in salmon farming but not for human supplementation. Look for AstaReal or BioAstin branded products.

Dose

4–12 mg/day. 4 mg is the typical maintenance dose; 8–12 mg for skin / eye / cardiovascular indications.

Timing

With a fat-containing meal (fat-soluble — absorption increases ~3x with fat). AM typical.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Very well-tolerated. Skin may take on a slight orange tinge at high doses (harmless, reversible). Mild GI upset rare.

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild additive at high doses. Antihypertensives (additive BP lowering). 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors — astaxanthin has mild inhibition.

Contraindications

Allergy to algae or seafood (rare). Hormone-sensitive cancers (theoretical — astaxanthin mildly modulates androgens / estrogens).

Lab markers

Not standard. Skin and eye outcomes are subjective / functional.

Food sources

Wild salmon (especially sockeye — extremely high), krill, shrimp, lobster, trout, red sea bream. Wild salmon delivers 1–4 mg per serving. Farmed salmon has much less (and the colour comes from synthetic astaxanthin in feed).

A unique sulfur-containing antioxidant the body has a dedicated transporter for — suggesting it's important. Concentrated in mushrooms; depleted with age.

Ergothioneine is a naturally occurring amino acid synthesised by fungi and certain bacteria — the body doesn't make it. What's unusual: humans have a dedicated cellular transporter (OCTN1) specifically for ergothioneine, which strongly suggests it has an important role. It accumulates in tissues with high oxidative stress (liver, brain, kidney, bone marrow, eye) where it acts as a powerful, slow-acting antioxidant. Levels decline with age, and low ergothioneine has been associated with mild cognitive impairment, frailty, and cardiovascular events. Bryan Earthman's lab at Johns Hopkins has called it a 'longevity vitamin' candidate. Easy to get from mushrooms; supplementation is becoming available.

Form

Pure ergothioneine (synthesised via fermentation — usually 5–30 mg per capsule). Mushroom extracts high in ergothioneine (especially oyster mushroom, king trumpet, shiitake).

Dose

5–30 mg/day from supplements. Mushroom-derived diets typically deliver 5 mg/day at most; a deliberate mushroom-heavy diet can go higher.

Timing

Anytime, with or without food.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally very well-tolerated. No notable side effects in clinical trials.

Interactions

Generally clean. Theoretical: chemotherapy (any potent antioxidant may interact — discuss with oncology).

Contraindications

None known at supplement doses.

Lab markers

Whole-blood ergothioneine (specialty labs offer this — useful for tracking baseline and response).

Food sources

Mushrooms — oyster, king trumpet, shiitake, maitake, lion's mane (highest concentrations); button and portobello have less but still significant. Black turtle beans, chicken liver, and oat bran have small amounts. Cooking does NOT destroy ergothioneine (unlike many other compounds — it's heat-stable).

The spark plug of cellular energy production. Depletes with age and with statin use — the most evidence-backed mitochondrial supplement.

Coenzyme Q10 is a fat-soluble molecule the body makes itself, used by mitochondria in nearly every cell to produce ATP — the energy currency of the body. It's also a major antioxidant inside the mitochondrial membrane. Production drops with age (roughly 40% lower at 60 vs 30) and is depleted by statin drugs, which block the same enzyme pathway. Symptoms of low CoQ10 — fatigue, muscle weakness, exercise intolerance, brain fog — are unmistakable in statin users and creep in for many people in their 40s onward. Supplementing it doesn't do much for people with abundant baseline levels, but for those who are deficient (older adults, statin users, anyone with heart failure or fibromyalgia) the effects are often striking.

Form

Ubiquinol (the reduced, active form) is preferred for adults over 40 and for anyone with reduced absorption — the body uses it directly. Ubiquinone (oxidised form) is cheaper and works fine in younger adults whose bodies convert it efficiently. Always a soft-gel in oil — CoQ10 is fat-soluble and dry-powder forms barely absorb.

Dose

100–200 mg/day for general use. 200–400 mg/day if on a statin or with heart failure / fibromyalgia / migraine prevention. Split doses above 200 mg (50% better absorption from 2 × 100 mg vs 1 × 200 mg).

Timing

With the fattest meal of the day — absorption is many-fold higher with dietary fat. Morning is typical; some people report mild insomnia if taken PM.

Schedule

Daily, ongoing. Not cycled — it's replacement, not a pulsed intervention.

Side effects

Very well-tolerated. Occasional mild GI upset, headache, or insomnia (if taken late). Rarely, mild rash.

Interactions

Warfarin — CoQ10 is structurally similar to vitamin K and can blunt warfarin's anticoagulant effect. Check INR more often or avoid. Mild blood-pressure lowering — additive with antihypertensives, usually beneficial but worth knowing. May reduce chemotherapy efficacy (debated — discuss with oncologist).

Contraindications

None absolute. Caution on warfarin (see above). Discuss with oncology team if on active chemotherapy.

Lab markers

Plasma CoQ10 is measurable but not routinely available and not standardised across labs. Useful in research contexts; in practice most people supplement based on symptoms and risk factors (age, statin use, condition) rather than a number.

Food sources

Organ meats (heart, liver, kidney — by far the richest sources, especially beef heart). Fatty fish (sardines, mackerel, herring). Beef, chicken thigh. Peanuts, sesame seeds, pistachios. Even a diet rich in these foods provides only 3–6 mg/day — supplementation is the only way to reach therapeutic levels.

A direct precursor to NAD+, the coenzyme that powers DNA repair, sirtuin signalling, and mitochondrial energy. NAD+ falls ~50% by age 60 — NMN attempts to restore it.

NMN is a molecule the body uses to make NAD+, the essential coenzyme involved in over 500 enzymatic reactions including DNA repair (PARP), gene-silencing longevity signals (sirtuins), and energy production (oxidative phosphorylation). NAD+ levels decline steadily with age — by 50–60% from your 30s to your 60s — paralleling many aspects of aging. The hypothesis: replenish NAD+ via precursor supplementation and slow some of those declines. Mouse studies are striking. Human studies are accumulating, showing safety and biomarker improvements but still building the case for clinical benefits. NMN sits alongside NR (nicotinamide riboside) as the two leading precursors.

Form

Sublingual NMN — bypasses first-pass metabolism, debated whether it adds much. Liposomal NMN — better absorption. Plain NMN capsules — work but at higher doses. Quality matters hugely here — third-party testing essential (counterfeit / under-dosed product is a real problem in this category).

Dose

250–1,000 mg/day. Sinclair lab uses 1 g/day in their human work. Most users in the 500 mg range.

Timing

AM on empty stomach. NAD+ can be mildly energising — avoid PM dosing. The Sinclair protocol pairs with resveratrol (in yogurt or fat for absorption).

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild flushing (less than niacin), nausea, indigestion. Long-term safety beyond a few years is unknown.

Interactions

Theoretical interaction with chemotherapy (NAD+ may support cancer cell metabolism — discuss with oncology). Generally clean.

Contraindications

Active cancer (theoretical — NAD+ supports proliferating cells). Discuss with oncologist if relevant. Pregnancy / lactation — no data.

Lab markers

Whole-blood NAD+ (specialty labs offer this — Jinfiniti, ChromaDex). Less common: NAD+:NADH ratio. Worth a baseline + 12-week follow-up if you're committing to the cost.

Food sources

Trace amounts in broccoli, edamame, cucumber, cabbage, avocado, tomato — far below supplemental doses. Cannot reach therapeutic NAD+ elevation through food.

The other major NAD+ precursor. Better-studied than NMN in humans, with patent-protected purity (Niagen / Tru Niagen), but slightly less direct conversion.

NR is a form of vitamin B3 that the body converts to NAD+ via a specific kinase pathway. Like NMN, it raises NAD+ levels — the coenzyme that powers DNA repair, sirtuin activation, and mitochondrial energy production. NR has the longer regulatory and clinical history (sold as Niagen / Tru Niagen since 2013) with multiple completed human trials. NR and NMN do largely the same thing; the choice between them is mostly cost, brand trust, and personal preference. NR is GRAS-affirmed and FDA NDI-notified — the regulatory status is cleaner than NMN, which the FDA challenged in 2022.

Form

Niagen / Tru Niagen (ChromaDex's patented NR — the form used in essentially all published research). Generic NR is increasingly available but quality varies; if buying generic, look for third-party testing.

Dose

300–600 mg/day. Most trials use 300 mg/day.

Timing

AM with or without food. Can be mildly energising — avoid PM.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild flushing (less than niacin), nausea, headache, fatigue in some. Long-term safety beyond ~5 years not established.

Interactions

Theoretical interaction with chemotherapy (NAD+ supports proliferating cells — discuss with oncology). Generally clean.

Contraindications

Active cancer (theoretical — discuss with oncologist). Pregnancy / lactation — no data.

Lab markers

Whole-blood NAD+ (specialty labs — Jinfiniti, ChromaDex). Baseline + 12-week follow-up worthwhile given the cost commitment.

Food sources

Trace amounts in milk and yeast. Not enough to reach therapeutic NAD+ elevation through food.

The no-flush form of vitamin B3. Cheap NAD+ precursor, evidence-backed for skin cancer prevention, and a quiet workhorse for joint and bone support.

Niacinamide (a.k.a. nicotinamide) is the amide form of vitamin B3, distinct from nicotinic acid (niacin) — niacinamide doesn't cause flushing or lipid changes. It's a precursor to NAD+ via the salvage pathway, supports DNA repair (by inhibiting PARP1, sparing NAD+ for other uses), and has demonstrated benefit in skin cancer prevention. The ONTRAC trial showed 23% reduction in non-melanoma skin cancers with 500 mg twice daily in high-risk patients — making niacinamide one of the very few supplements with rigorous outcome-trial data for cancer prevention. Topically, it's a workhorse skincare ingredient for acne, hyperpigmentation, and barrier support.

Form

Nicotinamide / Niacinamide — same compound, different naming. Plain capsules. Topical niacinamide serum (4–10%) is a separate use case for skin.

Dose

500 mg twice daily (1 g/day) — the ONTRAC dose for skin cancer prevention. 50–500 mg/day for general NAD+ / methylation support. Don't exceed 3 g/day chronically (liver risk).

Timing

With food (reduces nausea). AM and PM split for higher doses.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Nausea, GI upset, headache, fatigue at high doses. Liver function changes at very high doses (>3 g/day).

Interactions

Mild interaction with anticoagulants. Carbidopa (Parkinson's) — some interaction reported. Does NOT cause flushing like niacin does.

Contraindications

Active liver disease. Caution at high doses with diabetes (paradoxical effect on glucose at high doses in some studies).

Lab markers

Liver enzymes (ALT, AST) if running >1 g/day long-term. NAD+ if tracking longevity protocol.

Food sources

Beef, chicken, turkey, salmon, tuna, mushrooms, peanuts, brown rice, fortified grains. Adequate dietary intake is easy.

The only known supplement to trigger mitochondrial biogenesis — the production of new mitochondria. The natural complement to CoQ10.

PQQ is a redox cofactor found in trace amounts in many plant foods. What makes it interesting: it doesn't just support existing mitochondria — it appears to drive the creation of new ones. The mechanism involves activating PGC-1α, the master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis. In animals, PQQ supplementation increases mitochondrial number and improves energy, cognition, and lifespan markers. In humans, the evidence is more limited but consistent — reduced inflammation, improved subjective energy, better sleep quality, and improved cognitive markers. It pairs naturally with CoQ10, which supports the mitochondria you already have.

Form

BioPQQ (fermentation-derived, patented form — the form used in most studies). Plain PQQ disodium salt works too.

Dose

10–20 mg/day. Doses above 40 mg don't appear to add much.

Timing

AM with food. Can be mildly energising — not for PM.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Rarely: headache, insomnia, fatigue.

Interactions

Generally clean. Theoretical additive antioxidant effect with high-dose vitamin C / E.

Contraindications

None significant in healthy adults. Pregnancy / lactation — limited data.

Lab markers

Not routinely tested. Functional: CRP, fasting glucose, energy/fatigue scales.

Food sources

Trace amounts in fermented soybeans (natto), green tea, kiwi, papaya, parsley, green peppers, spinach. Quantities are very low — therapeutic effect requires supplementation.

Triggers mitophagy — the cell's housekeeping process that clears out damaged mitochondria. The first supplement with proper RCT evidence for measurably better muscle function in older adults.

Urolithin A is a metabolite the gut microbiome makes from ellagitannins found in pomegranate, walnuts, and some berries. Critically, only ~30–40% of people have the right gut bacteria to actually produce it from those foods — for the other 60%, eating pomegranate doesn't deliver any urolithin A at all. Direct supplementation bypasses the gut variability. Its primary effect: triggering mitophagy, the quality-control process that clears out damaged mitochondria so cells can make healthy new ones. Two well-designed human trials (Andreux et al. 2019, 2022) showed measurable improvements in muscle endurance and strength in older adults. Sold under the Mitopure brand (Amazentis / Timeline).

Form

Mitopure (Timeline brand) — the only commercial pure-urolithin-A product with completed RCTs. Generic urolithin A is increasingly available. Pomegranate extracts high in ellagitannins are a precursor-only approach — only works if your microbiome converts.

Dose

500 mg/day (the dose used in published trials). 250 mg is the lower-bound effective dose.

Timing

With a fat-containing meal for absorption. AM typical.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Very well-tolerated in trials. Rare GI upset.

Interactions

Generally clean. Limited interaction data.

Contraindications

Pregnancy / lactation (no data). Active cancer / chemotherapy (theoretical mitochondrial-modulation concern — discuss with oncologist).

Lab markers

Plasma urolithin A (sometimes offered by Timeline as a producer-status test). Functional muscle markers: 6-minute walk distance, grip strength.

Food sources

Pomegranate (juice and arils), walnuts, raspberries, strawberries, blackberries, certain teas. But only converted to urolithin A by ~30–40% of people — most need to supplement directly to see the effect, regardless of how many pomegranates they eat.

A Krebs cycle intermediate that animal data suggests extends lifespan and healthspan. Levels drop with age; supplementation restores some of what's lost.

Alpha-ketoglutarate is a central metabolite in the Krebs cycle — the energy production loop running in every mitochondrion. It's also a key cofactor in epigenetic regulation, collagen synthesis, and nitrogen balance. Blood AKG drops ~10x from young adulthood to old age. A 2020 mouse study from the Buck Institute (Asadi-Shahmirzadi et al.) showed Ca-AKG extended healthspan and compressed morbidity in middle-aged mice. Human trials (ongoing — Rejuvant) suggest biological age reversal effects. Calcium AKG is the most-studied supplemental form.

Form

Calcium AKG (Ca-AKG) — the form used in most longevity research. Rejuvant is the patented branded version.

Dose

1–2 g/day (Rejuvant uses 1 g/day in their LifeAKG product).

Timing

AM with food.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Very well-tolerated. Mild GI upset rare. Calcium content is minor at standard doses.

Interactions

Generally clean. Limited data.

Contraindications

Active cancer (theoretical — discuss with oncology). Hypercalcemia. Pregnancy / breastfeeding (limited data).

Lab markers

Biological age testing (TruAge / TruDiagnostic, GlycanAge) for tracking. Blood AKG measurable but not routine.

Food sources

Trace amounts in spinach, kale, oranges — far below supplemental doses.

A sugar that's directly used to rebuild ATP. Useful in conditions of energy depletion — fibromyalgia, CHF, post-exercise recovery — less so for healthy people.

D-ribose is a pentose sugar that's a direct building block of ATP. When muscle or heart tissue runs short on ATP (from ischemia, intense exercise, chronic fatigue), the body has to slowly rebuild it via the pentose phosphate pathway. Supplementing ribose bypasses this rate-limiting step. Best evidence: chronic fatigue / fibromyalgia (Teitelbaum trials show meaningful symptom relief), congestive heart failure adjunct, and recovery from very intense exercise. Less impressive in healthy untrained adults.

Form

D-Ribose powder — slightly sweet, dissolves in water. Capsules also common.

Dose

5 g 2–3x daily (10–15 g/day) for fibromyalgia / CHF. 3–5 g pre- or post-workout for athletes.

Timing

With or without food. Spread across the day.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Mild hypoglycemia (ribose is a sugar — can drop blood sugar). GI upset. Loose stool at high doses.

Interactions

Diabetes medications — paradoxical interaction (ribose lowers blood sugar acutely). Insulin — watch for hypoglycemia.

Contraindications

Hypoglycemia tendency. Pre-existing diabetes (use with monitoring).

Lab markers

Fasting glucose if diabetic. Subjective fatigue / pain tracking.

Food sources

Trace amounts in brewer's yeast. Not in everyday food at therapeutic amounts.

An old dye repurposed as a mitochondrial-electron carrier. Improves cellular oxygen utilisation; turns urine and tongue blue. Take very seriously and at low dose.

Methylene blue is a phenothiazine dye in clinical use since 1891 — originally as a malaria treatment, then as an antidote for methemoglobinemia. It acts as an alternative electron carrier in the mitochondrial respiratory chain, improving ATP production when oxygen delivery is impaired. At low doses (0.5–4 mg/kg) it shows cognitive enhancement, antidepressant effects, and protection against neurodegeneration in trials. At high doses it does the opposite (paradoxical effect). Pharmaceutical-grade only — aquarium / textile-grade methylene blue contains contaminants. Significant interaction risk with SSRIs (serotonin syndrome).

Form

Pharmaceutical / USP-grade methylene blue only. Liquid or capsules. Avoid aquarium / fabric / lab-grade.

Dose

Very low: 0.5–4 mg/day (microdose). Some studies go to 0.5 mg/kg. The dose-response curve is U-shaped — more is not better.

Timing

AM. Mildly activating. Stains everything blue — including tongue, urine.

Schedule

Daily or cycled (2–3 days/week).

Side effects

Blue urine, blue tongue (cosmetic, harmless). Headache, GI upset, sweating. Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency.

Interactions

SSRIs, SNRIs, MAOIs, tramadol, triptans — serotonin syndrome risk is real and serious. Methylene blue is itself a potent MAOI. Do not combine.

Contraindications

On any serotonergic medication (most antidepressants, migraine triptans, tramadol). G6PD deficiency. Pregnancy / breastfeeding. Severe kidney impairment.

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Not food.

The body's most abundant adrenal hormone and a precursor to both testosterone and estrogen. Levels drop sharply with age — replacement is increasingly common.

DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone) is produced by the adrenal glands as a precursor that the body converts into testosterone and estrogen as needed. It peaks in your mid-20s and drops 80–90% by your 70s, paralleling many age-related declines. Supplementation can restore youthful levels, with effects on libido, mood, lean mass, bone density, and skin. Effects vary significantly by sex and individual baseline — women generally respond at lower doses than men, and people with truly low baseline see the biggest changes. In some countries (UK, Canada, Australia) DHEA is prescription-only; in the US it's an OTC supplement.

Form

Micronised DHEA for better absorption. 7-Keto DHEA is a metabolite that doesn't convert to sex hormones — useful for metabolic / fat-loss claims without the hormonal effects. DHEA vaginal cream (prasterone / Intrarosa, Rx) for postmenopausal vaginal atrophy.

Dose

Women: 5–25 mg/day (starting low — often only 5–10 mg needed). Men: 25–50 mg/day. Always titrate from low dose — test, adjust. Don't supplement blind.

Timing

AM with food. Once daily.

Schedule

Daily. Re-test after 8–12 weeks; adjust dose to target.

Side effects

Acne, oily skin, hair loss / unwanted hair growth (especially women — androgenic effects). Voice changes, irritability, insomnia. Estrogen-side effects in men: breast tenderness. Headache.

Interactions

Hormone-sensitive medications (HRT, oral contraceptives, anti-androgens, tamoxifen) — significant interaction. Insulin / diabetes medications (mild glucose effects). SSRIs (modest interaction). Warfarin — variable effects.

Contraindications

Hormone-sensitive cancers (breast, prostate, ovarian, endometrial). PCOS (already elevated androgens). Pregnancy / breastfeeding. Severe liver disease.

Lab markers

DHEA-S (sulphated form) — the standard marker, stable through the day. Target: youthful adult range (~200–400 μg/dL women, 280–640 μg/dL men). Total testosterone, estradiol if monitoring downstream conversion.

Food sources

Not present in food — exclusively endogenous + supplemental.

A DHEA metabolite that doesn't convert to testosterone or estrogen. Mild metabolic / thermogenic effects without DHEA's hormonal side effects.

7-Keto DHEA (3-acetyl-7-oxo-DHEA, 7-oxo-DHEA) is a naturally-occurring metabolite of DHEA that the body cannot convert back into sex hormones — so it lacks the androgenic / estrogenic effects of standard DHEA. It modestly raises thermogenesis and basal metabolic rate, supports T3 thyroid hormone activity, and has small body-fat-loss effects in calorie-restricted trials. Useful when you want the metabolic effects of DHEA without the hormonal side effects.

Form

7-Keto DHEA capsules. Look for clean / single-ingredient products.

Dose

100 mg twice daily (200 mg total).

Timing

AM and midday with food. Not PM (mildly activating).

Schedule

Daily, often cycled (8 weeks on / 2 off).

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild irritability, insomnia (if taken PM). Headache.

Interactions

Thyroid medications — additive T3 effect. Generally clean otherwise.

Contraindications

Hyperthyroidism. Pregnancy / breastfeeding. Children.

Lab markers

TSH, free T3, free T4 if running long-term. Body composition.

Food sources

Not in food.

The 'mother hormone' — the upstream precursor to DHEA, progesterone, cortisol, testosterone, and estrogen. Strongest noted effects are on cognition and mood.

Pregnenolone is synthesised from cholesterol in the adrenal glands, gonads, and brain — and from there the body builds every other steroid hormone. It declines significantly with age. It's also a neurosteroid in its own right, acting on NMDA and GABA-A receptors and supporting myelin repair. Most clinical interest is in its cognitive and mood effects — there's reasonable evidence for memory, depression (especially bipolar depression), and schizophrenia adjunct treatment. As a hormone precursor, the downstream effects depend on what your body is short on; supplementation can be unpredictable in non-deficient individuals.

Form

Micronised pregnenolone for better absorption. Sublingual / oral tablets / cream all available.

Dose

5–30 mg/day for general use. Higher doses (50–500 mg) used in clinical research for cognition and mood. Start low.

Timing

AM with food (steroid-hormone effects can be activating).

Schedule

Daily. Re-test downstream hormones at 8–12 weeks.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated at modest doses. Acne, irritability, anxiety, insomnia, headache at higher doses. Androgenic / estrogenic effects via conversion.

Interactions

Hormonal medications (HRT, contraceptives, anti-androgens) — variable downstream effects. SSRIs, sedatives (modest interactions). Anticoagulants — variable.

Contraindications

Hormone-sensitive cancers (breast, prostate, ovarian, endometrial). Pregnancy / breastfeeding. Seizure disorders (relative — pregnenolone modulates GABA and NMDA).

Lab markers

Serum pregnenolone (less commonly tested than DHEA-S; check baseline before supplementing). DHEA-S, progesterone, testosterone, estradiol for downstream effects.

Food sources

Not present in food — endogenous + supplemental only.

Shifts estrogen metabolism toward the protective 2-hydroxy pathway and away from the proliferative 16-hydroxy pathway. The estrogen-balance supplement.

DIM is the active compound the stomach forms when you eat I3C (indole-3-carbinol) from cruciferous vegetables — broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, Brussels sprouts. It modulates how the liver metabolises estrogen, favouring the 'good' 2-hydroxyestrogen (anti-proliferative, less linked to cancer risk) over the 'bad' 16-hydroxyestrogen (more proliferative). For women, this matters for managing estrogen dominance symptoms — heavy periods, PMS, fibrocystic breasts, hormonal acne. For men, DIM helps clear excess estrogen and supports a healthier testosterone-to-estrogen ratio.

Form

BioResponse DIM (BR-DIM) — the patented, bioavailable, well-studied form. Plain DIM — cheaper but absorbs poorly. I3C — upstream precursor; the body converts to DIM (less efficient, less consistent).

Dose

100–200 mg/day BR-DIM. Up to 300 mg/day in some clinical protocols.

Timing

With food. AM or split AM/PM.

Schedule

Daily. Cycle off periodically (e.g. 3 months on, 1 off) optional.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Headache, GI upset, darker urine (harmless). Estrogen-rebalancing effects can cause transient symptoms changes.

Interactions

Hormonal contraceptives, HRT — can reduce contraceptive efficacy by accelerating estrogen metabolism. Tamoxifen, aromatase inhibitors — complex interaction (discuss with oncology). CYP3A4 / CYP1A2 substrates — DIM modulates these enzymes.

Contraindications

Pregnancy / breastfeeding. On hormonal contraception (use additional birth control or avoid). Hormone-sensitive cancers without provider input.

Lab markers

Urinary 2-OH vs 16-OH estrogen ratio (DUTCH test or similar — the most informative marker for DIM users). Estradiol, estrone.

Food sources

Cruciferous vegetables — broccoli, broccoli sprouts, brussels sprouts, cabbage, kale, cauliflower, bok choy. Eating cruciferous regularly (3–5 servings/week) provides background DIM/I3C support; supplementation delivers therapeutic doses.

Supports the body's ability to actually excrete used estrogens (and other toxins) by inhibiting beta-glucuronidase — the enzyme that 'reactivates' compounds the liver wanted to get rid of.

Once the liver tags a hormone or toxin for excretion (by attaching a glucuronic acid molecule — Phase II glucuronidation), it travels through the bile to the gut. There, gut bacteria produce beta-glucuronidase, which can cleave the tag and send the compound back into circulation — a kind of detox-undo. Calcium D-glucarate inhibits beta-glucuronidase, allowing the body to actually finish the job of clearing estrogens and other compounds. It's the downstream partner to DIM, which works on the upstream metabolism step.

Form

Calcium D-Glucarate capsules.

Dose

500–1,500 mg/day. Typical doses are 500 mg 2–3x daily.

Timing

With food. AM and PM split for higher doses.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally very well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, dry mouth occasionally.

Interactions

Medications cleared via glucuronidation (lorazepam, morphine, certain anti-virals, acetaminophen) — calcium D-glucarate may accelerate clearance, lowering blood levels.

Contraindications

Pregnancy / breastfeeding (limited data). Otherwise none significant.

Lab markers

Urinary estrogen metabolites (DUTCH test). Not routinely needed for general use.

Food sources

Oranges, apples, grapefruit, broccoli, brussels sprouts, lettuce — contain glucaric acid but in much smaller amounts than supplements deliver.

The upstream precursor to DIM. Converts to DIM (and a few other compounds) in the stomach. Less efficient than direct DIM but cheaper.

I3C is the active compound produced when you damage cruciferous vegetable cells (chewing, chopping, cooking) — myrosinase enzyme converts glucobrassicin into I3C. In the acidic stomach, I3C then condenses into DIM and several other indole compounds. Supplementing I3C delivers a broader profile than DIM alone, but with less predictable conversion. Most clinical research has been on cervical dysplasia, breast cancer prevention, and BPH (men). Generally interchangeable with DIM at the user level — pick one or the other rather than both.

Form

Indole-3-Carbinol capsules. Less common than DIM in supplement stores.

Dose

200–400 mg/day. Higher clinical doses (up to 800 mg) used in cervical dysplasia research.

Timing

With food. AM typical.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. GI upset, headache. Rarely transient liver enzyme elevations at high doses.

Interactions

Hormonal contraceptives, HRT — can reduce contraceptive efficacy. CYP enzyme substrates — I3C modulates multiple CYP enzymes; significant interactions with tamoxifen, warfarin, certain anti-virals.

Contraindications

Pregnancy / breastfeeding. On hormonal contraception. Hormone-sensitive cancers without provider input.

Lab markers

Urinary 2:16 estrogen metabolite ratio (DUTCH test). Liver enzymes if running high doses long-term.

Food sources

Cruciferous vegetables when chopped or chewed raw — broccoli, cabbage, brussels sprouts, kale, cauliflower, bok choy. Cooking partially destroys the I3C-generating enzyme; some raw cruciferous in the diet preserves the conversion.

The most evidence-backed adaptogen. Lowers cortisol, blunts stress reactivity, improves sleep, and modestly raises testosterone in men.

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) is an Ayurvedic root used for thousands of years and now one of the most rigorously studied herbal extracts. It works through the HPA axis — modulating cortisol output, dampening the stress response, and supporting GABA signalling. The result is something that feels less like a stimulant or a sedative and more like a slow widening of your stress bandwidth. After 2–4 weeks most users report that everyday irritations bother them less, sleep is steadier, and recovery from hard exercise improves. Men typically see a modest testosterone bump (5–15% on average); women see improvements in stress, sleep, and DHEA-S.

Form

KSM-66 (full-spectrum root extract, standardised to 5% withanolides) — the most-studied form. Balanced, can be taken AM or PM. Sensoril (root + leaf, standardised to 10% withanolides) — more sedating, lean to PM use. Avoid unstandardised raw-powder products — potency varies wildly.

Dose

KSM-66: 600 mg daily, taken once or split AM/PM. Sensoril: 250–500 mg daily, evening preferred.

Timing

AM, PM, or split. KSM-66 is flexible. Sensoril leans PM. With or without food.

Schedule

Cycle 8 weeks on, 2 weeks off. Some people do fine continuously, but periodic breaks prevent receptor desensitisation and give you a clearer read on whether it's actually still helping. Not a forever-supplement for most.

Side effects

Mild GI upset in some. Drowsiness — if it's too sedating, take only AM. Paradoxically stimulating in a small minority (insomnia if taken PM). Very rarely, mild liver enzyme elevation — discontinue if jaundice or right-upper-quadrant pain appears.

Interactions

Thyroid medication — ashwagandha mildly raises T3/T4 and can stack with levothyroxine, pushing you hyperthyroid. Sedatives and benzodiazepines (additive). Immunosuppressants (ashwagandha is mildly immunostimulant). Diabetes medications (mild glucose-lowering effect).

Contraindications

Hyperthyroidism — ashwagandha raises thyroid hormone and can worsen it. Pregnancy — abortifacient in traditional use, avoid. Autoimmune conditions (Hashimoto's, RA, MS, lupus) — immune-stimulating effect can flare them. Caution with active liver disease. Caution if you take any of: thyroid hormone, immunosuppressants, sedatives.

Lab markers

Not typically monitored. If tracking stress objectively: morning cortisol, DHEA-S, and a salivary cortisol curve before and after 8 weeks. For men: total + free testosterone, SHBG. For caution: TSH + free T4 / T3 before starting if any thyroid history.

Food sources

Not present in everyday food — this is a concentrated herbal extract.

The acute-stress adaptogen. Where ashwagandha takes weeks to feel and works on chronic stress, rhodiola works within hours and is better for energy, focus, and mental endurance.

Rhodiola rosea is a high-altitude flowering plant used for centuries in Russian and Scandinavian traditional medicine. It modulates the stress response through monoamine pathways (dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine) and the HPA axis. Unlike most adaptogens, it has noticeable acute effects — many users feel it within 30–60 minutes. It shines when you need to perform under stress or fatigue: long workdays, jet lag, sleep deprivation, demanding cognitive tasks. The downside: tolerance can build with daily use, and some people find it overstimulating. Best used pulsed or cyclically rather than continuously.

Form

SHR-5 (Swedish standardised extract — the form used in the most reliable trials). Standardised to 3% rosavins and 1% salidroside. Avoid unstandardised raw root powder.

Dose

200–600 mg/day. Most users land at 200–400 mg. Higher doses are not necessarily better — sweet spot is individual.

Timing

AM or pre-task. Not PM — can disrupt sleep. Acute use: 30–60 min before stressful event or task.

Schedule

Cycle: 4–6 weeks on, 1–2 weeks off — prevents tolerance. Or use intermittently (3–5 days/week, as-needed for stress / fatigue).

Side effects

Overstimulation, jitteriness, irritability (especially in anxious phenotypes — start at low dose). Dizziness, dry mouth. Vivid dreams. Can suppress appetite.

Interactions

SSRIs / SNRIs — additive serotonergic effect, theoretical serotonin syndrome risk. Stimulants — additive. Hypertension medications — mild BP effects either direction. Diabetes medications — mild blood sugar effects.

Contraindications

Bipolar disorder — rhodiola can trigger mania in susceptible individuals. Active anxiety / panic disorder (often makes it worse). Pregnancy / lactation — limited safety data.

Lab markers

Not standard. Subjective tracking (Profile of Mood States, fatigue scales) most practical.

Food sources

Not in food — exclusively a supplement / traditional extract.

The original 'adaptogen' — the herb that gave the category its name. Mild stimulant-free energy support and immune resilience under chronic stress.

Eleutherococcus senticosus is a shrub from northeastern Asia. It's not technically a true ginseng (different genus), but Russian researcher Israel Brekhman coined the term 'adaptogen' studying it in the 1960s. It's the gentlest of the energy adaptogens — non-stimulating, slow-onset, modest effects. Used by Soviet athletes, cosmonauts, and shift workers for stamina under chronic stress. Less acute punch than rhodiola or panax ginseng, but easier to take long-term without the overstimulation risk.

Form

Standardised extract to ≥0.8% eleutherosides. Look for products specifying eleutheroside B and E content.

Dose

300–1,200 mg/day standardised extract.

Timing

AM or early afternoon. Not PM.

Schedule

6–8 weeks on, 2 weeks off — to prevent adaptation.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Insomnia (if taken PM), mild GI upset, headache. Rare hypertension at high doses.

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild additive. Diabetes medications — modest glucose effects. Digoxin — case reports of elevated levels. Sedatives — opposing effect.

Contraindications

Uncontrolled hypertension. Bleeding disorders. Pregnancy / breastfeeding. Hormone-sensitive conditions (mild estrogenic activity).

Lab markers

Not standard. Subjective energy / fatigue tracking.

Food sources

Not in everyday food — extract only.

The 'true' ginseng. Warming, stimulating, classical TCM use for vitality. Modest cognitive and erectile function benefits in trials.

Panax ginseng is the warming, stimulating Korean / Chinese variety (versus the cooling American ginseng). Its bioactive ginsenosides modulate the HPA axis, support nitric oxide production, and have mild stimulant effects via dopaminergic pathways. Multi-thousand-year history in TCM as a vitality tonic. Modern RCTs support modest improvements in cognition (working memory, reaction time), erectile function in mild ED, fatigue in cancer patients, and exercise tolerance. Not for chronic anxiety or insomnia phenotypes — can over-stimulate.

Form

Standardised extract to 4–7% ginsenosides. Red Korean ginseng (steamed, more warming) versus white ginseng (sun-dried, milder). Look for Cheong Kwan Jang or other reputable Korean brands.

Dose

200–600 mg/day standardised extract.

Timing

AM. Not PM — stimulating.

Schedule

Cycle: 6–8 weeks on, 2 weeks off.

Side effects

Insomnia, irritability, anxiety, headache, palpitations, GI upset. Hypoglycemia in diabetics. Estrogenic effects in some.

Interactions

Warfarin — reduces efficacy (case reports). MAOIs — additive stimulant effects. Diabetes medications — additive glucose lowering. Caffeine, stimulants — additive overstimulation. Hormone-sensitive medications — estrogenic interaction.

Contraindications

Uncontrolled hypertension. Insomnia. Anxiety disorders (often makes worse). Hormone-sensitive cancers. Pregnancy / breastfeeding. Bipolar disorder.

Lab markers

BP, fasting glucose if diabetic. Cognitive batteries for objective tracking.

Food sources

Ginseng root in soups and teas (TCM traditional). Standardised extracts deliver more reliable dosing.

The 'incomparable one' in Ayurveda. Gentle adaptogen with strong evidence for cortisol reduction, anxiety, and mild blood sugar support.

Holy basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum / sanctum) is a sacred plant in Hindu tradition, revered as 'the queen of herbs.' Pharmacologically, it's a true adaptogen — modulates HPA axis, lowers cortisol, supports the body's stress response. Modern RCTs support reductions in general anxiety, perceived stress, and forgetfulness, plus modest blood sugar and lipid improvements. Gentler than ashwagandha but with similar profile. Available as capsules, tea, or fresh herb in Indian groceries.

Form

Standardised extract to ≥2% ursolic acid. Holy basil tea (loose leaf or bagged — common in Indian and yogic traditions).

Dose

300–600 mg/day standardised extract. Tea: 1–3 cups daily.

Timing

AM or split AM/PM. Anytime — gentle, doesn't typically disrupt sleep.

Schedule

Daily. Cycle (8 weeks on / 2 off) optional.

Side effects

Generally very well-tolerated. Mild GI upset rare. Mild blood sugar lowering.

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild additive blood-thinning. Diabetes medications — additive glucose lowering. Levothyroxine — possible mild thyroid interaction.

Contraindications

Pregnancy / breastfeeding (theoretical hormonal effects). Bleeding disorders. Hypothyroidism (caution — animal studies suggest mild T4 lowering).

Lab markers

Cortisol (morning, salivary curve). Fasting glucose, HbA1c. Lipid panel.

Food sources

Holy basil leaves in Thai cuisine (pad krapow), Indian dishes, and as a fresh herb. Easily added to cooking; medicinal effect requires consistent intake.

A classical Chinese adaptogen with the unusual property of supporting both energy and calm. Strong liver-protective evidence; popular in Russian and Chinese clinical use.

Schisandra chinensis is a vine bearing berries that taste of all five basic flavors — sweet, sour, salty, bitter, pungent. Long history in TCM and Russian phytomedicine for vitality, liver protection, and stress resilience. Its lignans (schisandrins) support liver detoxification via Phase I/II enzymes, modulate the HPA axis, and have mild central nervous system effects. Russian Olympic athletes and astronauts used it for stamina and stress; modern Chinese research emphasises hepatoprotection.

Form

Standardised extract to ≥9% schisandrins. Schisandra berries dried or as tincture in TCM tradition.

Dose

500–2,000 mg/day standardised extract.

Timing

AM or split AM/midday. Mildly activating.

Schedule

Daily. Some cycle 8 weeks on / 2 off.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Heartburn, GI upset, decreased appetite. Sleep disturbance if taken PM.

Interactions

CYP3A4 substrates — schisandra induces CYP3A4 in some studies, can alter drug levels. Tacrolimus, sirolimus — variable effects. Diabetes medications — mild interaction.

Contraindications

Pregnancy (uterine stimulant). Active peptic ulcer (can increase stomach acid). Epilepsy / brain pressure issues. On narrow-therapeutic-window medications without input.

Lab markers

Liver enzymes (ALT, AST) for monitoring. Subjective stress / fatigue tracking.

Food sources

Dried schisandra berries in TCM food and medicine. Not a typical Western food.

A central TCM tonic herb with strong immune-support and emerging telomere / longevity research (Astragaloside IV / TA-65).

Astragalus membranaceus is one of the most-used herbs in TCM, classified as a 'qi tonic' — building energy and supporting immunity. Modern research has focused on its polysaccharides (immune modulation) and astragalosides — particularly astragaloside IV, which appears to activate telomerase (the enzyme that maintains chromosome end-caps). The branded form TA-65 is concentrated astragaloside IV and is one of the few commercial telomerase activators with human research. Outside the longevity angle, astragalus is a solid immune-support herb with cardiac and renal-protective effects.

Form

Astragalus root extract standardised to polysaccharides and/or astragalosides. TA-65 — concentrated astragaloside IV, much more expensive. Astragalus root in TCM herb shops for traditional decoction.

Dose

Root extract: 500–1,500 mg/day. TA-65: per manufacturer (typically 1–8 mg/day).

Timing

Anytime with food. AM common.

Schedule

Daily. Cycle (3 months on / 1 off) optional.

Side effects

Generally very well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, skin reactions rare.

Interactions

Immunosuppressants — astragalus is immune-stimulating; opposing action. Anticoagulants — mild additive. Lithium — astragalus is mildly diuretic; can affect lithium levels.

Contraindications

Active autoimmune disease (immune-stimulating effect can flare). On immunosuppressants (organ transplant). Acute infection at presentation (theoretical concern with immune stimulation during sepsis). Pregnancy / breastfeeding.

Lab markers

Not standard. Immune panels in research contexts. Telomere length (specialty labs — Life Length, Repeat Diagnostics) for TA-65 users.

Food sources

Astragalus root is added to TCM soups and tonics — long-simmered then removed. The root itself is fibrous and not eaten.

A Peruvian Andean root used as both food and medicine. Best evidence is for libido (men and women) and modest mood / energy support — without hormonally manipulating anything.

Maca (Lepidium meyenii) is a high-altitude root vegetable grown in the Peruvian Andes for at least 2,000 years. Unusual in this category — it doesn't directly affect hormones (testosterone, estrogen, FSH, LH all unchanged in trials). The libido and energy effects appear to be neuroendocrine and possibly act through dopamine modulation. Three colour varieties have different traditional uses: yellow (general), red (women / hormones), black (men / libido / energy). Effects are gentle and need 6–8 weeks to build.

Form

Gelatinised maca powder (heat-processed, easier to digest than raw). Yellow (general), red (women, hormonal), black (men, libido, energy). Standardised extracts also available.

Dose

1,500–3,000 mg/day. Most trials use 1,500–3,000 mg.

Timing

AM or split AM/midday. Some find it mildly energising — avoid PM.

Schedule

Daily. Some users cycle (5 on, 2 off) for sustained sensitivity.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, gas, insomnia (if taken PM). Some report jitters at high doses.

Interactions

Generally clean. Mild thyroid interaction possible (cruciferous family — goitrogenic compounds, mostly inactivated by cooking / gelatinisation).

Contraindications

Thyroid dysfunction (relative — use cooked / gelatinised forms only). Hormone-sensitive cancers (limited safety data despite no clear hormonal effect). Pregnancy / breastfeeding.

Lab markers

Not standard. Subjective tracking.

Food sources

Maca IS a food — used in Andean cuisine in baking, smoothies, and traditional dishes. Standardised supplements deliver more concentrated doses than typical food use.

A blackish resin oozing from Himalayan rocks — humic / fulvic acids, mineral-rich. Modest testosterone, energy, and mitochondrial support.

Shilajit is a mineral-pitch substance found seeping from rocks in the Himalayas, Altai, and other high mountain ranges. It's a complex of fulvic acid, humic acid, dibenzo-α-pyrones, and trace minerals — produced by centuries of plant and microbial decomposition under pressure. Modern trials (mostly small, mostly Indian) support modest testosterone elevation in men with low-normal baseline, improved sperm parameters, mitochondrial support, and anti-fatigue effects. Quality is the issue — fake / contaminated shilajit is rampant. Lab-tested resin from reputable sources only.

Form

Purified shilajit resin (PrimaVie is the patented, lab-tested standardised form used in most trials). Tablets and capsules also exist.

Dose

250–500 mg/day of purified resin / PrimaVie.

Timing

AM with food.

Schedule

Daily, often cycled (5 days / 2 off).

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated when purified. Allergic reactions, increased uric acid in some.

Interactions

Diabetes medications — mild glucose lowering. Iron — shilajit contains iron, monitor in hemochromatosis. Anti-hypertensives — possible mild additive.

Contraindications

Hemochromatosis (iron content). Sickle-cell disease. Active gout (uric acid effects). Pregnancy / breastfeeding. Unverified / unpurified sources (heavy metal contamination risk).

Lab markers

Total + free testosterone. Ferritin (iron content). Uric acid if gout history.

Food sources

Not in everyday food.

An Ayurvedic herb that genuinely improves memory and learning — but takes 8–12 weeks of consistent use to feel anything.

Bacopa monnieri is a small creeping herb used in Ayurveda for over 3,000 years to enhance memory and cognitive function. Modern human RCTs have backed this up reasonably well — multiple trials show improved memory acquisition, learning rate, and reduced anxiety after 8–12 weeks. The mechanism involves modulating serotonin and dopamine, increasing cerebral blood flow, and antioxidant effects on brain tissue. Unlike most nootropics, bacopa has no acute effect — it's a builder, requires consistent use, and the cognitive benefit accumulates slowly. Patience required.

Form

Standardised extract to ≥50% bacosides. Brand: BacoMind, Bacognize, KeenMind (the form used in many trials).

Dose

300–600 mg/day standardised extract. Trials typically use 300 mg/day.

Timing

With a fat-containing meal (bacopa is fat-soluble — absorption improves significantly). AM or split AM/PM.

Schedule

Daily. Effects accumulate — give it 8–12 weeks before judging.

Side effects

GI upset is the main issue (nausea, cramping, loose stool) — usually solved by taking with a fatty meal. Vivid dreams. Dry mouth. Mild sedation in some.

Interactions

Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (donepezil, etc.) — additive cholinergic effect. Thyroid medication — bacopa modestly elevates T4, can compound. Sedatives — additive. Calcium channel blockers — additive BP lowering.

Contraindications

Hyperthyroidism (relative). Slow heart rate or bradyarrhythmia. Pregnancy / breastfeeding — limited safety data.

Lab markers

Not standard. Cognitive batteries (working memory, learning rate) for objective tracking.

Food sources

Not present in everyday food.

An ancient tree extract with one core mechanism: improved blood flow, especially to the brain. Best evidence is in mild cognitive impairment and dementia.

Ginkgo biloba leaf extract is one of the most-studied herbal supplements in the West, especially in Germany where it's a registered drug for cognitive impairment. The standardised extract EGb 761 (Tebonin / Tanakan) contains flavonoid glycosides and terpene lactones that improve microcirculation, reduce platelet aggregation, and have antioxidant effects. Best evidence is in mild-to-moderate cognitive impairment, dementia symptoms, intermittent claudication, and tinnitus. Less impressive in healthy adults seeking 'memory boost' — the effect is too modest to feel acutely.

Form

EGb 761 (Tebonin / Tanakan) — the standardised German extract used in most trials. Standardised to 24% flavonoid glycosides + 6% terpene lactones.

Dose

120–240 mg/day. Trials use 120 mg twice daily.

Timing

With food. AM and PM split.

Schedule

Daily. Effects accumulate over 8–12 weeks.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Headache, GI upset, dizziness. Rare allergic skin reactions.

Interactions

Anticoagulants and antiplatelets — additive blood-thinning; case reports of bleeding (including intracranial). Don't combine with high-dose ginkgo. SSRIs, MAOIs — possible additive serotonergic effects. Seizure medications — ginkgo may lower seizure threshold (high-dose).

Contraindications

Bleeding disorders. Pre-surgery (stop 7–14 days before). On anticoagulants. Epilepsy / seizure disorders (high doses). Pregnancy.

Lab markers

Cognitive testing (MMSE, MoCA) for objective tracking in MCI / dementia. PT/INR if on warfarin.

Food sources

Ginkgo seeds (银杏 in TCM) are edible after cooking — but the leaves contain the supplemental compounds, not the seeds, and leaves aren't eaten directly.

A phospholipid that makes up cell membranes — especially abundant in the brain. Reduces evening cortisol, supports memory, and is one of the few supplements with an FDA-allowed cognitive claim.

Phosphatidylserine is a phospholipid concentrated in neuronal cell membranes. The body makes some, but levels decline with age. Supplementation supports cognitive function (memory, learning, attention) and — uniquely — lowers evening cortisol, which makes it useful for people whose cortisol stays elevated at night and disrupts sleep. The FDA permits a qualified health claim that PS 'may reduce risk of dementia and cognitive dysfunction in the elderly.' Original studies used bovine brain-derived PS; modern supplements use soy- or sunflower-derived (BSE concerns long-since solved).

Form

Soy or sunflower-derived phosphatidylserine. Look for products specifying PS content per serving (300 mg is standard).

Dose

100–300 mg/day for cognitive support. 400–800 mg for cortisol reduction / sleep (split AM/PM, with majority in evening).

Timing

PM for cortisol / sleep effects. AM/PM split for cognitive use.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. GI upset, insomnia (if too high a PM dose), headache.

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild additive. Anticholinergic medications — opposing action (PS supports acetylcholine).

Contraindications

Soy allergy (use sunflower-derived). Pregnancy / breastfeeding — limited safety data.

Lab markers

Cortisol curve (salivary) for stress tracking. Cognitive testing for MCI / age-related decline.

Food sources

Organ meats (especially brain — limited cultural use), fish, soybeans, white beans, egg yolks. Whole-food intake is modest; supplementation provides therapeutic doses.

More than a kitchen herb. Standardised sage extracts modestly improve memory and reduce menopausal hot flashes.

Salvia officinalis (common sage) and Salvia lavandulifolia (Spanish sage) have well-documented acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting activity — modestly boosting acetylcholine for memory and cognition. Small RCTs (notably Tildesley, Scholey) show improved memory and mood in healthy adults and modest benefit in Alzheimer's. Separately, sage tea / extract has good evidence for hot flash reduction in menopause. Cheap and pleasant; the kitchen variety in food provides some benefit.

Form

Standardised sage extract, Spanish sage essential oil capsules, sage tea.

Dose

300–600 mg extract daily. 50–150 µL essential oil capsules. Tea: 1–3 cups daily.

Timing

AM for cognition. Anytime for hot flashes.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated at supplemental doses. Excessive doses of sage essential oil (containing thujone) can cause seizures and tachycardia.

Interactions

Anticonvulsants — sage may lower seizure threshold at high doses. Sedatives — additive. Diabetes medications — mild glucose lowering.

Contraindications

Pregnancy / breastfeeding (dries up milk supply). Seizure disorders (high doses). Hormone-sensitive cancers (relative — mild estrogenic).

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Sage in cooking — roasted poultry, sausages, butternut squash. Tea is the gentle medicinal form.

Another culinary herb with cognitive bona fides. Just smelling rosemary essential oil measurably improves memory. Oral extracts add antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.

Rosemary contains rosmarinic acid, carnosic acid, and 1,8-cineole — compounds with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting activity. Notable: aromatherapy with rosemary essential oil produces measurable improvements in memory and alertness in trials (Moss, Oswald). Oral rosemary extract has evidence for general antioxidant support, modest BP improvement, and anti-anxiety effects.

Form

Rosemary leaf extract capsules, rosemary essential oil (aromatherapy diffuser or inhaler — not for oral use undiluted).

Dose

Extract: 250–750 mg/day. Tea: 2–4 g leaves daily.

Timing

AM for cognition (acute aromatherapy effect within minutes).

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally very well-tolerated at culinary / supplement doses. Large medicinal doses of essential oil orally can cause seizures.

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild additive. Diabetes meds — mild glucose lowering. ACE inhibitors — possible additive BP effect.

Contraindications

Pregnancy (high medicinal doses — uterine stimulant). Seizure disorders (essential oil specifically). Bleeding disorders.

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Fresh or dried rosemary in cooking — roasted potatoes, lamb, focaccia. Tea is a gentle daily option.

The classic European sleep herb. Smells terrible, works gently. Best for sleep onset and mild generalised anxiety.

Valeriana officinalis root has been used as a sleep aid in European medicine since ancient Greece. Its valerenic acids modulate GABA-A receptors (similar mechanism to benzodiazepines, much milder). Modern meta-analyses show modest but real improvements in sleep latency and quality, especially after 2+ weeks of consistent use. Effects build over time rather than acting acutely on a single dose. Pungent smell — capsules are far more practical than tincture.

Form

Standardised valerian root extract (0.8% valerenic acid).

Dose

300–600 mg, 30–60 min before bed. Trials use up to 900 mg.

Timing

PM only.

Schedule

Daily for 2+ weeks for sustained benefit. Can be cycled or used short-term.

Side effects

Morning grogginess, vivid dreams, headache. Paradoxical stimulation in a small minority. Generally well-tolerated.

Interactions

Sedatives, benzodiazepines, alcohol — additive sedation. CYP3A4 substrates — mild interaction.

Contraindications

Pre-surgery (stop 1–2 weeks before). Pregnancy / breastfeeding. Liver disease (rare hepatotoxicity reports).

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Not food. Valerian tea is bitter and pungent — capsules preferred.

A gentle anxiolytic herb that works through GABA — useful for mild generalised anxiety and as a pre-bed sleep support.

Passiflora incarnata is a flowering vine native to the Americas. Its flavonoids (especially chrysin) modulate GABA-A receptors, producing mild anxiolytic and sedative effects. Small RCTs show comparable anxiety reduction to low-dose benzodiazepines for pre-procedure anxiety, and modest sleep benefit. Gentler than valerian, often combined with it.

Form

Passionflower extract standardised to flavonoid content. Tinctures, capsules, and teas all common.

Dose

250–500 mg extract 1–3x daily. 500 mg 30–60 min before bed for sleep.

Timing

Anytime for anxiety. PM for sleep.

Schedule

Daily or as-needed.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild drowsiness, dizziness, GI upset.

Interactions

Sedatives, MAOIs, anticoagulants — mild additive effects. Anti-anxiety medications — additive.

Contraindications

Pregnancy (uterine stimulant). Pre-surgery (stop 1–2 weeks before).

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Passionflower tea is the traditional preparation.

The same plant that flavours beer. Sedating bitter compounds (lupulin) modulate sleep and calm — most often combined with valerian.

Humulus lupulus cones produce lupulin — a yellow resin containing bitter acids that bind melatonin receptors and modulate GABA. It's been a folk sleep remedy (think the Edwardian hops pillow) and has small but consistent RCT support for sleep quality, especially in combination with valerian (Sedaplus / Songha Night). Mildly sedating on its own; meaningfully so paired with other sedative herbs. Also has phytoestrogenic activity worth knowing about.

Form

Hops extract (often in combination with valerian — Songha Night, Sedaplus). Hops pillows traditional.

Dose

200–400 mg pre-bed. Combination products typically 100–200 mg hops + 200–300 mg valerian.

Timing

PM, 30–60 min before bed.

Schedule

Daily for sustained benefit. Effects build over 2 weeks.

Side effects

Morning grogginess, vivid dreams. Mild estrogenic effects with chronic high doses.

Interactions

Sedatives, alcohol — additive. Estrogenic medications — additive (hops contains 8-prenylnaringenin, a potent phytoestrogen).

Contraindications

Estrogen-sensitive cancers. Pregnancy / breastfeeding (estrogenic activity). Depression (some traditional cautions about depressing effects).

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Beer (in tiny amounts — not enough for sleep effects without the alcohol disrupting it).

A bright, lemony mint with quiet but real calming and cognitive effects. Useful for daytime anxiety without sedation.

Melissa officinalis is a member of the mint family used since the Middle Ages for nervousness and 'melancholy.' Its rosmarinic acid and triterpenes mildly inhibit GABA breakdown and modulate acetylcholine — producing calm focus rather than sedation. RCTs support reduced anxiety, improved mood, better sleep quality, and modest cognitive improvements. Pleasant taste; works well as a tea as well as extract.

Form

Standardised lemon balm extract (Cyracos brand specifically tested in trials). Tea or tincture for milder use.

Dose

300–600 mg/day extract. 2–3 cups of tea daily.

Timing

Anytime for anxiety / calm focus. PM 30–60 min before bed for sleep.

Schedule

Daily or as-needed.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, drowsiness at higher doses, headache.

Interactions

Sedatives — additive. Thyroid medications — possible interaction (lemon balm mildly suppresses TSH).

Contraindications

Hypothyroidism (relative — may worsen). Pregnancy / breastfeeding.

Lab markers

TSH if on thyroid medication.

Food sources

Lemon balm leaves in salads, teas, and herbal preparations.

Two different herbs sharing a name. American skullcap is a gentle nervine for anxiety; Chinese skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis) is a powerful anti-inflammatory with cancer-adjunct research.

American skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora) has a centuries-long Western herbal use for anxiety, nervous tension, and mild insomnia — mostly via GABA modulation. Chinese skullcap (S. baicalensis) is a different plant with different uses, primarily as an anti-inflammatory and immune modulator. Its bioactive baicalein has reasonable cancer-adjunct, hepatitis, and viral infection evidence. Both safe at recommended doses; read the label for which species.

Form

American skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora) — anxiety / sleep tincture or extract. Chinese skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis) standardised to baicalein — anti-inflammatory / immune.

Dose

American: 350–700 mg or 2–4 mL tincture 2–3x daily. Chinese: 250–500 mg standardised baicalein extract 2x daily.

Timing

With food. PM for sleep use.

Schedule

Daily or as-needed.

Side effects

Drowsiness, mild GI upset. Rare liver toxicity reports (often traced to adulteration with germander — buy reputable brands).

Interactions

Sedatives (American — additive). Anticoagulants — mild additive. CYP enzyme substrates — Chinese skullcap is a moderate CYP inhibitor.

Contraindications

Liver disease (relative — adulteration concerns). Pregnancy / breastfeeding. Bleeding disorders.

Lab markers

Liver enzymes if running long-term.

Food sources

Not in everyday food.

A chamomile-derived flavonoid that's the cleanest sleep aid in the pre-bed stack. Mildly sedating without grogginess; also a CD38 inhibitor (slows NAD+ degradation).

Apigenin is a flavonoid concentrated in chamomile (especially Roman chamomile), parsley, and celery. It binds benzodiazepine-binding sites of GABA-A receptors gently (much milder than valerian or RX sedatives), producing relaxation and improved sleep onset without next-day grogginess in most users. Separately, apigenin inhibits CD38 — the enzyme that degrades NAD+ — making it part of some longevity stacks alongside NMN / NR. Popularised by Andrew Huberman's sleep cocktail.

Form

Apigenin capsules (often 50 mg). Chamomile tea (much smaller dose, also relaxing).

Dose

50 mg pre-bed (Huberman protocol). Up to 200 mg/day for longevity / antioxidant use, split across the day.

Timing

PM 30–60 min before bed for sleep. AM if used for CD38 inhibition.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Very well-tolerated. Rare GI upset.

Interactions

Sedatives — mild additive. CYP enzyme substrates — apigenin is a moderate CYP2C9 inhibitor. Anticoagulants — mild additive.

Contraindications

Allergy to chamomile or Asteraceae family. Pregnancy (chamomile is traditionally avoided in early pregnancy).

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Chamomile tea (Roman especially), parsley, celery, oregano, artichoke. Concentrated supplementation delivers higher doses than realistic food intake.

Naturally rich in melatonin and anti-inflammatory anthocyanins. Useful for sleep, exercise recovery, and joint pain. Drink it as juice or take an extract.

Montmorency tart cherry is one of the few foods with measurable melatonin content alongside potent anti-inflammatory anthocyanins. Multiple RCTs support improved sleep duration and quality, reduced muscle soreness after eccentric exercise, lower uric acid (gout), and modest joint pain reduction. Best evidence at therapeutic doses requires either concentrated juice or extracts — handfuls of fresh cherries don't deliver enough.

Form

Tart cherry juice concentrate or standardised extract (CherryPure, CherryStar).

Dose

Juice: 30 mL concentrate (diluted) 2x daily, or 8–16 oz daily. Extract: 480–500 mg/day.

Timing

Evening for sleep effect. With food. Pre/post workout for recovery.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally very well-tolerated. GI upset at high doses. Sugar content in juice — choose unsweetened.

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild additive. Diabetes medications — watch sugar content of juice forms.

Contraindications

Diabetes (juice form). Generally clean.

Lab markers

Uric acid if used for gout.

Food sources

Fresh or frozen tart cherries (smaller dose). Concentrate is more practical for therapeutic use.

A plant alkaloid that lowers blood sugar and lipids about as well as metformin in head-to-head trials. The most evidence-backed natural metabolic supplement.

Berberine is an alkaloid extracted from several plants (goldenseal, barberry, Oregon grape). Its primary mechanism is activating AMPK, the cellular 'energy sensor' that regulates glucose uptake, fat oxidation, and mitochondrial function — the same target as metformin. RCTs show comparable HbA1c reduction to metformin in type-2 diabetes, plus additional LDL cholesterol reduction. Outside diabetes, it's used for metabolic syndrome, PCOS, pre-diabetes, and lipid management. Bioavailability is poor (~5%), so dihydroberberine (the gut-converted active form) is increasingly the preferred form for higher effective dose at lower mg.

Form

Berberine HCl — the standard, well-studied. Dihydroberberine — 5x more bioavailable, lower dose needed, gentler on the gut. Berberine phytosome — improved absorption.

Dose

Berberine HCl: 500 mg 2–3x daily (1,500 mg/day total). Dihydroberberine: 100–200 mg 2x daily.

Timing

Just before meals (with the meal also fine). Helps blunt the post-meal glucose spike.

Schedule

Daily. Some users cycle (3 months on, 1 off) to maintain microbiome balance, but most run continuously.

Side effects

GI side effects are common at the start — bloating, cramps, loose stools, constipation. Usually resolves in 1–2 weeks. Start at 500 mg once daily and titrate up.

Interactions

CYP3A4 substrates — berberine is a moderate CYP3A4 inhibitor; raises blood levels of statins (esp. simvastatin), cyclosporine, calcium channel blockers, some sedatives. Diabetes medications — additive glucose lowering, watch for hypoglycemia. Antihypertensives — additive BP lowering. Anticoagulants — mild interaction.

Contraindications

Pregnancy (uterine stimulation, kernicterus risk). Lactation (transfers to infant). Active hypoglycemia. Severe liver impairment.

Lab markers

HbA1c, fasting glucose, fasting insulin. Lipid panel (LDL, triglycerides). Liver function (ALT, AST) at baseline and 8–12 weeks.

Food sources

Not present in everyday food — concentrated extract from medicinal plants.

The 'sugar destroyer.' Chewed before eating, it temporarily blocks the ability to taste sweetness — useful for breaking sugar habits. Also genuinely supports blood sugar control.

Gymnema sylvestre is an Ayurvedic vine whose gymnemic acids bind sweet-taste receptors on the tongue, temporarily abolishing the taste of sugar (try chewing the leaf, then biting chocolate — it tastes like wax). Beyond the party-trick effect, it supports blood sugar control via multiple mechanisms — improved insulin sensitivity, reduced glucose absorption from gut, possibly some pancreatic beta-cell support. Useful adjunct in pre-diabetes and sugar-craving protocols. Take just before meals.

Form

Standardised extract to 25% gymnemic acids.

Dose

200–400 mg before each main meal, or 600 mg/day in divided doses.

Timing

Just before main meals.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Hypoglycemia in diabetics on medication. Mild GI upset.

Interactions

Diabetes medications — additive glucose lowering, monitor closely.

Contraindications

Active hypoglycemia. On diabetes medications without provider monitoring. Pregnancy / breastfeeding.

Lab markers

Fasting glucose, HbA1c, fasting insulin.

Food sources

Not in everyday food.

A traditional Asian vegetable used for centuries in diabetes management. Reasonable evidence for modest blood sugar improvement.

Bitter melon (also bitter gourd, karela) is a vegetable common in South Asian, Chinese, and Caribbean cooking. Its 'charantin' and a polypeptide called p-insulin act on glucose uptake and insulin signalling. Traditional use for blood sugar is millennia-old; modern trials are mixed but largely supportive of modest glucose improvements. Better as adjunct to lifestyle and other agents than as standalone therapy.

Form

Bitter melon extract standardised, or juiced fresh fruit (traditional, but bitter).

Dose

500–1,500 mg/day extract. 50–100 mL fresh juice daily.

Timing

Before main meals.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

GI upset, diarrhea, abdominal pain. Hypoglycemia in diabetics on medication.

Interactions

Diabetes medications — additive. Anticoagulants — mild.

Contraindications

Pregnancy (uterine stimulant, traditional abortifacient). Active hypoglycemia. G6PD deficiency (favism-like reaction reported).

Lab markers

Fasting glucose, HbA1c.

Food sources

Bitter melon vegetable — common in South Asian cuisine. Karela curry, stir-fries.

A Filipino leaf extract whose corosolic acid mildly mimics insulin. Useful adjunct in blood sugar management; lacks the GI burden of berberine.

Lagerstroemia speciosa (banaba) leaves contain corosolic acid, a triterpene that improves glucose uptake in muscle cells and has been called 'plant insulin.' Used in traditional Filipino medicine for diabetes. Modern human trials are small but supportive: modest HbA1c reduction, improved post-meal glucose. Gentler on the gut than berberine, easier to combine with other supplements.

Form

Banaba leaf extract standardised to 1–2% corosolic acid (GlucoTrim, GlucoFit).

Dose

32–48 mg corosolic acid daily (typically delivered via 250–500 mg of standardised extract). Split before meals.

Timing

Before main meals.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Hypoglycemia in diabetics on medication.

Interactions

Diabetes medications — additive.

Contraindications

Active hypoglycemia. Pregnancy / breastfeeding.

Lab markers

Fasting glucose, HbA1c.

Food sources

Banaba leaves are used in traditional Filipino teas.

The 'true' cinnamon. Modest blood sugar effects; far safer than cassia cinnamon (the cheap supermarket kind), which contains liver-toxic coumarin.

There are two cinnamons. Ceylon cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum / zeylanicum) is the 'true' cinnamon, native to Sri Lanka — lighter colour, milder taste, very low coumarin. Cassia cinnamon (Cinnamomum cassia) is what's in most supermarket cinnamon, especially the cheaper kind — darker, stronger flavour, but high in coumarin (a liver-toxic compound at chronic high doses). For supplemental use, Ceylon is the right choice. Modest evidence for HbA1c reduction, post-meal glucose smoothing, and triglyceride improvement.

Form

Ceylon cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) powder or extract. Check label — most supermarket cinnamon is cassia.

Dose

1–6 g/day (typically as 500–1,000 mg capsules or 1–2 tsp powder).

Timing

With food. AM is common.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mouth/lip irritation at high doses. Cassia cinnamon at chronic high doses can cause liver toxicity (coumarin) — Ceylon avoids this.

Interactions

Diabetes medications — additive. Anticoagulants (cassia especially — coumarin). Hepatotoxic drugs (with cassia).

Contraindications

Liver disease (avoid cassia entirely; Ceylon is safe). Pregnancy (high doses).

Lab markers

Fasting glucose, HbA1c, lipid panel. LFTs if running cassia long-term.

Food sources

Ceylon cinnamon in cooking, baking, oats, coffee. Even 1 tsp/day in food provides some benefit.

A culinary spice with three distinct supplemental uses — blood sugar, testosterone support in men, and milk supply in nursing mothers.

Trigonella foenum-graecum seeds are widely used in South Asian, Middle Eastern, and North African cooking. Their soluble fibre and bioactive compounds give modest blood sugar improvement (effective in mild T2D). Standardised extracts (Testofen) show modest free-testosterone elevation and libido improvement in middle-aged men. Folk use as a galactagogue (milk-supply support) is also supported by trials, though the mechanism is unclear. Smell — high doses make sweat and urine smell of maple syrup.

Form

Fenugreek seed powder (cooking), standardised extract (Testofen for men, FenuLife). 500 mg saponin-rich extract for hormonal use.

Dose

Blood sugar: 5–10 g seed powder daily. Testosterone: 600 mg Testofen daily. Lactation: 1.5–3 g 3x daily.

Timing

With food. Often split.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Maple-syrup body odor (sweat, urine), GI upset, gas. Mild diarrhea.

Interactions

Anticoagulants — additive blood-thinning. Diabetes medications — additive glucose lowering. Hormonal medications — possible interaction (hormonal effects).

Contraindications

Pregnancy (uterine stimulant). Hormone-sensitive cancers. Bleeding disorders. Allergy to peanuts / chickpeas (cross-reactivity).

Lab markers

Fasting glucose, HbA1c, testosterone.

Food sources

Fenugreek seeds in South Asian cooking — curry powders, breads, traditional dishes.

A folk staple with surprisingly solid evidence for post-meal glucose blunting. Take a tablespoon in water before carb-heavy meals.

Apple cider vinegar (acetic acid in water, plus 'the mother' of beneficial compounds in unfiltered versions) has a decades-long folk reputation as a digestive aid and metabolic supplement. The clinical surprise: acetic acid genuinely slows gastric emptying and post-meal glucose rise, especially when taken before carb-heavy meals — 1–2 tbsp in water reduces post-prandial glucose by ~20% in trials. Modest long-term HbA1c effects. Also useful for low stomach acid presentations (similar to betaine HCl, much gentler).

Form

Raw, unfiltered apple cider vinegar with mother (Bragg's, similar). Capsules and gummies less effective than liquid (much smaller acetic acid dose).

Dose

1–2 tablespoons (15–30 mL) diluted in a large glass of water, before main meals.

Timing

10–15 min before carb-heavy meals.

Schedule

Before meals as needed.

Side effects

Tooth enamel erosion (rinse mouth after; sip with straw). Throat / stomach irritation if undiluted. Mild GI upset.

Interactions

Diabetes medications — additive. Diuretics — additive potassium loss. Digoxin — interaction via potassium.

Contraindications

Active gastritis / peptic ulcer. Severe acid reflux. Always dilute.

Lab markers

Fasting glucose, HbA1c, post-meal glucose tracking (CGM useful).

Food sources

ACV as a salad dressing or drizzle works similarly to the supplemental form — slowing meal-time glucose rise.

A soluble fibre that swells in the stomach to ~50x its dry volume. The most evidence-backed natural appetite-suppressant fibre.

Glucomannan is the soluble fibre extracted from the konjac plant root (same plant as shirataki noodles). When mixed with water it swells dramatically, producing satiety, slowing gastric emptying, and binding cholesterol and bile acids in the gut. EFSA-approved health claims for cholesterol reduction and weight loss in calorie-restricted diets. Important safety note: take with plenty of water — dry capsules can swell and obstruct the esophagus.

Form

Glucomannan powder (mix in water) or capsules.

Dose

1 g 3x daily, taken with a full glass of water before each main meal.

Timing

15–30 min before meals, with at least 240 mL water.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Gas, bloating, mild GI upset (first 1–2 weeks). Esophageal obstruction if taken without enough water — never dry-swallow capsules.

Interactions

Reduces absorption of many oral medications (diabetes meds, levothyroxine, statins, etc.) — separate by 2 hours.

Contraindications

Difficulty swallowing. Esophageal strictures or motility disorders. GI obstruction history.

Lab markers

Lipid panel, weight tracking.

Food sources

Shirataki noodles (konjac noodles) deliver similar fibre as food.

Frankincense extract. Inhibits 5-LOX (a different inflammation pathway than NSAIDs target), making it especially useful for joint pain and inflammatory bowel disease.

Boswellia serrata is the Indian variety of the same frankincense tree used in incense for 3,000 years. Its bioactive boswellic acids — especially AKBA (acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid) — selectively inhibit 5-lipoxygenase, an inflammatory enzyme that NSAIDs and steroids don't touch. This gives boswellia a different mechanism than most anti-inflammatories, complementary to ibuprofen / curcumin / fish oil. Best evidence: knee osteoarthritis (comparable to NSAIDs in head-to-head trials), inflammatory bowel disease (ulcerative colitis, Crohn's), and asthma. Often combined with curcumin in joint formulas.

Form

AprèsFlex / AflapIN (standardised to 20% AKBA) — most-studied bioavailable form. 5-Loxin (30% AKBA) — also clinically supported. Plain boswellia 65% — older, less concentrated.

Dose

100–250 mg/day of AprèsFlex / 5-Loxin. 300–500 mg 2–3x daily of standard 65% extract.

Timing

With food. AM and PM split for higher doses.

Schedule

Daily, ongoing.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. GI upset, nausea, mild diarrhea. Rare skin rash.

Interactions

NSAIDs — additive (helpful for pain, but combined GI risk). Immunosuppressants — mild interaction (boswellia is mildly immune-modulating).

Contraindications

Pregnancy (may stimulate menstruation). Active IBD flare without provider input.

Lab markers

Not standard. CRP, ESR for inflammation tracking.

Food sources

Frankincense resin is traditionally chewed in some cultures but isn't part of typical diet.

The single best evidence-backed natural anti-nausea agent. Pregnancy morning sickness, motion sickness, chemo nausea, post-op nausea — all respond.

Zingiber officinale rhizome contains gingerols, shogaols, and related compounds that act on serotonin (5-HT3) receptors in the gut — the same target as ondansetron (Zofran). Multiple RCTs and Cochrane reviews support efficacy in pregnancy morning sickness (the only commonly-recommended supplement for this), motion sickness, post-operative nausea, and chemotherapy-induced nausea. Also anti-inflammatory: comparable to ibuprofen for osteoarthritis pain in some trials. Cheap, safe, food-derived.

Form

Standardised ginger extract, fresh ginger root, candied ginger, ginger tea. All effective at appropriate doses.

Dose

250 mg standardised extract 4x daily, or 1 g/day (split). Fresh ginger: 1–4 g per day.

Timing

Before potentially nauseating events. With food for joint pain / general use.

Schedule

As-needed for nausea. Daily for chronic inflammation / joint pain.

Side effects

Mild heartburn, gas, mouth irritation at high doses.

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild additive (case reports of bleeding at high doses + warfarin). Diabetes medications — mild glucose lowering. BP medications — mild additive.

Contraindications

Bleeding disorders (high doses). Pre-surgery (stop 1–2 weeks before). Gallstones (stimulates bile flow).

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Fresh ginger in food and tea is highly effective at culinary doses for everyday nausea / digestive support.

The compound that makes chillies hot. Mild thermogenic / metabolic effects orally; potent topical pain relief in standardised creams.

Capsaicin is the active heat in chilli peppers (Capsicum). Orally — usually as the encapsulated 'Capsimax' (which avoids stomach burn) — it modestly raises metabolic rate, suppresses appetite, and supports fat oxidation. Effects are real but small. Topically, capsaicin creams (0.025–0.075% OTC, 8% Rx patch) deplete substance P from sensory nerves, providing meaningful pain relief in osteoarthritis, post-herpetic neuralgia, and diabetic neuropathy. The patch is FDA-approved Rx (Qutenza).

Form

Capsimax (beadlet-encapsulated capsaicin — oral, avoids gastric burn). Capsaicin creams 0.025–0.075% OTC topical. Qutenza 8% patch Rx.

Dose

Oral: 2 mg Capsimax daily. Topical cream: apply 3–4x daily to affected area.

Timing

Oral: pre-workout or with meals. Topical: as-needed for pain.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Oral: stomach burning (mitigated by Capsimax form). Topical: initial burning, redness — usually subsides over a week of use.

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild additive. Antihypertensives — mild additive BP lowering. ACE inhibitors — capsaicin can worsen cough.

Contraindications

Active GI ulcers. Severe IBS / IBD. Topical: damaged skin, eyes.

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Chilli peppers, hot sauce, cayenne. Culinary use provides smaller doses than supplements but real cumulative effects.

A Southern African desert plant whose root extract is well-studied for back and joint pain. Comparable to mild NSAIDs in some trials.

Harpagophytum procumbens (named for the hooked claws on its fruit) is native to the Kalahari. Its harpagoside-rich root has been used by San and Khoi peoples for inflammation and pain. Modern German clinical use and trials support meaningful pain relief in osteoarthritis, lower back pain, and tendonitis — often comparable to mild NSAIDs (and gentler on the gut). Slower-acting than NSAIDs; build up over weeks.

Form

Standardised devil's claw extract to ≥50 mg harpagoside per dose.

Dose

1,000–2,000 mg/day extract, or 50–100 mg harpagoside daily, split.

Timing

With food.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

GI upset, diarrhea, headache. Generally well-tolerated.

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild additive blood-thinning. Diabetes medications — additive glucose lowering. P-gp / CYP substrates — possible mild interactions.

Contraindications

Active peptic ulcer (devil's claw increases stomach acid). Gallstones (bile-flow effects). Pregnancy. Cardiac arrhythmia (case reports).

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Not in everyday food.

The plant aspirin originally came from. Salicin-rich bark for pain and inflammation — gentler on the stomach than aspirin, with similar bleeding caveats.

Salix alba bark contains salicin, which the body converts to salicylic acid — the same compound aspirin was developed from. Slower-acting but somewhat gentler on the stomach lining than aspirin. Used for centuries for fever, headache, lower back pain, and joint pain. RCT evidence supports back pain and OA relief at standardised doses. Carries most of the same risk profile as aspirin (bleeding, Reye's syndrome in children, allergic reactions).

Form

Standardised white willow bark extract to 15% salicin (delivers ~120 mg salicin/dose).

Dose

240 mg salicin daily (~1,600 mg extract), split into 1–3 doses.

Timing

With food.

Schedule

Daily or as-needed for pain.

Side effects

Same as aspirin: GI upset, bleeding risk, allergic reactions, tinnitus at high doses. Reye's syndrome risk in children with viral illness.

Interactions

Anticoagulants, antiplatelets — additive bleeding risk. NSAIDs — additive. Methotrexate, ACE inhibitors — interactions. Diabetes medications — additive glucose lowering.

Contraindications

Aspirin allergy. Bleeding disorders. Pre-surgery. Children with viral illness (Reye's risk). Pregnancy (third trimester). Active peptic ulcer.

Lab markers

PT/INR if on warfarin. Symptom tracking.

Food sources

Not in everyday food.

The liver herb. 2,000 years of European folk use; modern evidence supports its role in protecting and regenerating liver cells.

Milk thistle (Silybum marianum) is a flowering plant whose seeds yield silymarin — a complex of flavonolignans including silybin, silydianin, and silychristin. It works on the liver in three ways: as an antioxidant in hepatocytes, by stabilising cell membranes against toxin entry, and by stimulating regeneration of damaged liver cells. Strong evidence in mushroom poisoning (IV silibinin is a hospital antidote for amanita poisoning), moderate evidence in alcoholic / fatty liver disease, and modest evidence in viral hepatitis. Often used as a hangover prevention / liver-supportive supplement for those drinking alcohol, taking acetaminophen, or on multiple medications.

Form

Standardised silymarin extract at 70–80% silymarin (the gold standard concentration). Silymarin phytosome (Siliphos / Silybin Phytosome) — better-absorbed phospholipid complex.

Dose

150–300 mg silymarin 2–3x daily (450–900 mg total). Phytosome: 240–480 mg/day.

Timing

With food. Split AM/PM.

Schedule

Daily during periods of liver stress (medications, alcohol, exposure). Ongoing for chronic liver conditions.

Side effects

Very well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, loose stools, headache rarely.

Interactions

CYP3A4 / CYP2C9 substrates — silymarin is a mild inhibitor; can elevate levels of statins, calcium channel blockers, sirolimus, warfarin (modest). Generally clean otherwise.

Contraindications

Allergy to Asteraceae family (ragweed, daisy, chrysanthemum). Pregnancy (limited safety data).

Lab markers

ALT, AST, GGT (liver enzymes). Bilirubin if cholestasis is a concern.

Food sources

Milk thistle seeds can be ground and added to food, but practical doses for therapeutic effect require extract.

The garden weed that's a long-time European liver herb and gentle natural diuretic. Cheap, easy, mild — quietly useful.

Taraxacum officinale leaf and root have been used in European folk medicine for centuries — leaf for diuresis, root for liver and digestive support. Modern research is modest but supportive: leaf has genuine diuretic activity (probably stronger than most herbal diuretics), and root stimulates bile flow and supports liver detoxification. High in potassium (unusual among diuretics — doesn't deplete K+). Often used as tea or in combinations with milk thistle and artichoke for liver protocols.

Form

Dandelion root tincture or capsule (liver), dandelion leaf tea or extract (diuretic). Roasted dandelion root as coffee substitute.

Dose

Leaf: 4–10 g/day or 5–10 mL tincture. Root: 2–8 g/day or 5–10 mL tincture.

Timing

Anytime. Leaf for diuresis often AM.

Schedule

Daily or as-needed.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, allergic reactions in those allergic to Asteraceae family.

Interactions

Diuretics, lithium — additive diuretic effect. Anticoagulants — mild. Diabetes medications — mild glucose lowering.

Contraindications

Bile duct obstruction (root form). Asteraceae allergy. Pregnancy (high doses).

Lab markers

Liver enzymes if monitoring liver effects.

Food sources

Dandelion greens are edible and bitter, used in salads and traditional dishes. Roasted root is a caffeine-free coffee alternative.

A bittersweet root used in Western and Asian herbalism for liver / skin / detox support. Gentle, food-adjacent, modest effects.

Arctium lappa root has been used in European, Chinese, and Japanese traditional medicine for centuries — primarily for skin conditions (acne, eczema, psoriasis), liver and lymphatic support, and as a 'blood cleanser.' Its inulin content supports gut bacteria; its lignans and polyphenols have antioxidant and mild anti-inflammatory action. Modern evidence is limited but supportive of antioxidant skin benefits and modest blood sugar effects. Eaten as 'gobo' in Japanese cuisine.

Form

Burdock root extract or tincture. Fresh burdock root (gobo) in Japanese cuisine.

Dose

Extract: 1–2 g/day or 3–6 mL tincture. Food: as desired.

Timing

With food.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally very well-tolerated. Allergic reactions in those allergic to Asteraceae family.

Interactions

Diuretics, anticoagulants, diabetes medications — mild additive effects.

Contraindications

Asteraceae allergy. Pregnancy (uterine stimulant at high doses). Dehydration.

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Gobo — Japanese stir-fries, kimpira gobo, soups. The root is delicious as food.

Stimulates bile flow and helps with functional indigestion, especially fat-related. Modest cholesterol-lowering effects too.

Cynara scolymus leaf extract (different from the edible head) contains cynarin and chlorogenic acid, which stimulate bile production and flow from the liver and gallbladder. The German Commission E approves it for dyspepsia. Best evidence: post-meal indigestion (especially after fatty meals), modest LDL cholesterol reduction (~7%), and bloating / IBS-C symptoms. Often combined with ginger or peppermint for digestive blends.

Form

Standardised artichoke leaf extract to 13–18% caffeoylquinic acids (Cynara, ArtichOK).

Dose

320–640 mg 2–3x daily with meals.

Timing

With meals — most effective taken right before eating.

Schedule

Daily, or with problematic meals.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, gas, headache. Allergic reactions in those allergic to Asteraceae family.

Interactions

Bile acid sequestrants — opposing. Generally clean otherwise.

Contraindications

Bile duct obstruction. Active gallstones (relative). Asteraceae allergy. Pregnancy (limited data).

Lab markers

Lipid panel if used for cholesterol. LFTs if monitoring liver.

Food sources

Edible artichokes themselves provide some of the same compounds but at much lower doses than leaf extract.

A bile acid that thins bile, protects liver cells, and reduces endoplasmic reticulum stress. Useful for cholestasis, liver protection during oral compounds, and gallbladder support.

TUDCA is a water-soluble bile acid naturally present in small amounts in bear bile (used in TCM for centuries). Modern supplemental TUDCA is synthesised from cattle bile or chemically. It thins bile (helping it flow and preventing sludge), protects liver cells from oxidative and ER stress, and supports gallbladder function. Used in cholestatic liver diseases, post-gallbladder-removal support, and as protective add-on alongside hepatotoxic oral compounds (oral steroids, certain peptides, alcohol).

Form

TUDCA capsules. Bear-bile-derived versions are unethical and avoided; synthetic / cattle-bile-derived are the standard.

Dose

250–500 mg/day. Higher doses (1,000–1,750 mg/day) used clinically for cholestasis.

Timing

With food. Often split AM/PM.

Schedule

Daily during periods of liver / bile stress.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild diarrhea (bile-related), GI upset.

Interactions

Bile acid sequestrants (cholestyramine, etc.) — reduces absorption; separate by 4 hours. Aluminium-containing antacids — same. Generally clean.

Contraindications

Complete bile duct obstruction. Allergy to bile salts. Pregnancy / breastfeeding (limited data).

Lab markers

ALT, AST, GGT, alkaline phosphatase, bilirubin.

Food sources

Not in everyday food.

Enteric-coated peppermint oil is among the best evidence-backed treatments for IBS symptoms. Bypasses the stomach to act on the lower gut.

Mentha piperita's essential oil contains menthol and related terpenes that relax smooth muscle in the gut wall, ease cramping, and have mild antimicrobial activity. Plain peppermint oil hits the stomach (where it relaxes the LES and worsens reflux), so the supplemental form is enteric-coated — designed to dissolve only in the small intestine. Multiple RCTs and meta-analyses support enteric-coated peppermint oil for IBS symptom relief (especially abdominal pain and cramping) at levels comparable to several pharmaceutical options. Cheap, safe, gentle.

Form

Enteric-coated peppermint oil capsules (IBgard, Pepogest). Plain peppermint oil orally — avoid (reflux risk).

Dose

180–225 mg enteric-coated, 1–3x daily before meals.

Timing

30–60 minutes before meals. Empty stomach for proper enteric-coating function.

Schedule

Daily during symptomatic phases, or ongoing for chronic IBS.

Side effects

Heartburn / reflux if the enteric coating fails or you bite the capsule (defeats the purpose). Anal burning (the menthol passes through). Allergic reactions rare.

Interactions

PPIs / antacids — may dissolve enteric coating prematurely in stomach. CYP3A4 substrates — peppermint is a mild inhibitor.

Contraindications

GERD / hiatal hernia (relative — defeats the LES relaxation issue). Gallstones (relaxes gallbladder). Pregnancy (relative — high doses).

Lab markers

Symptom tracking.

Food sources

Peppermint tea (gentle, useful for everyday digestive complaints — much less potent than enteric-coated oil).

One of the most evidence-backed cardiovascular supplements. Lowers blood pressure, modestly improves lipids, and reduces arterial plaque progression.

Garlic (Allium sativum) has been food, medicine, and folk magic for millennia. Modern research has focused on its cardiovascular benefits — and the evidence is among the best for any supplement. The main bioactive (allicin) is created when raw garlic is chopped or crushed, but it's volatile and unstable. Aged garlic extract (AGE) sidesteps this with a different family of stable compounds (S-allyl cysteine and others), retaining the benefits without the breath impact. Meta-analyses consistently show ~10 mmHg systolic BP reduction in hypertensives, modest LDL reduction, and slowed coronary artery calcification progression. Solid all-rounder.

Form

Aged Garlic Extract (AGE / Kyolic) — the most-studied form. Odourless, stable, broad spectrum of stable sulfur compounds. Enteric-coated allicin garlic — high-allicin products that release in the small intestine. Fresh raw garlic — works but limited by tolerance and breath.

Dose

AGE: 600–1,200 mg/day (Kyolic doses). Allicin garlic: 300–600 mg/day standardised to 1.3% allicin. Fresh garlic: 1–2 cloves daily.

Timing

With meals.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Breath / body odor — fresh garlic and high-allicin forms; AGE is odorless. GI upset, heartburn. Mild antiplatelet effect.

Interactions

Anticoagulants and antiplatelets — additive blood-thinning, significant at high doses. Antihypertensives — additive BP lowering (usually beneficial). HIV protease inhibitors (saquinavir specifically) — garlic reduces blood levels. Cyclosporine — reduces levels.

Contraindications

Bleeding disorders. Pre-surgery (stop 7–14 days before). On saquinavir or cyclosporine.

Lab markers

Blood pressure (the most direct). Lipid panel. CAC score (coronary artery calcium) for long-term tracking.

Food sources

Fresh garlic — chopped or crushed and let sit 10 min before eating (releases allicin). 1–2 cloves daily is a reasonable food-based dose. Roasted garlic still has benefits but loses some allicin.

The traditional heart herb of European folk medicine. Modest but real benefit in mild heart failure and as a gentle cardio-tonic.

Hawthorn is a thorny tree whose berries, leaves, and flowers have been used for cardiovascular conditions in European herbal medicine for centuries. Its active flavonoids and oligomeric procyanidins improve coronary blood flow, increase cardiac contractility, and have mild ACE-inhibitor-like activity. The strongest evidence is in mild-to-moderate heart failure (NYHA class II) — the SPICE trial and others showed improved exercise tolerance and symptom relief as adjunct therapy. Used more broadly for mild hypertension, palpitations, and general 'cardiotonic' support. Gentle and slow-acting; not for acute cardiovascular events.

Form

Standardised hawthorn leaf and flower extract (WS 1442 — Crataegutt — the form used in most trials). Standardised to oligomeric procyanidins (OPCs).

Dose

300–900 mg/day of standardised extract. Heart failure trials use 900 mg/day (split).

Timing

With food. Split AM/PM.

Schedule

Daily, ongoing. Effects accumulate over months.

Side effects

Generally very well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, headache, dizziness. Sleep disturbance in some.

Interactions

Cardiac medications — additive effect with digoxin, beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers, ACE inhibitors. Antihypertensives — additive BP lowering. Discuss with cardiologist if you're on heart medications.

Contraindications

Severe heart failure (use only under cardiology supervision). Pregnancy / breastfeeding. Pre-surgery (stop 1–2 weeks before).

Lab markers

Blood pressure, resting heart rate, exercise tolerance. Echocardiogram (ejection fraction) in heart failure.

Food sources

Hawthorn berries are edible (somewhat astringent) and used in traditional jellies and tonics in parts of Europe and Asia.

A tart, ruby-red flower tea that lowers blood pressure as effectively as some first-line antihypertensives at modest doses.

Hibiscus sabdariffa is widely consumed as tea (karkadeh in Egypt, sorrel in the Caribbean, agua de jamaica in Mexico). The anthocyanins and organic acids have ACE-inhibitor-like activity and mild diuretic effects, producing meaningful blood pressure reduction. Meta-analyses show ~7–10 mmHg systolic reduction in hypertensives at 1–3 cups daily — comparable to first-line antihypertensives. Also reduces LDL modestly and has antimicrobial activity. Cheap, tasty, almost no side effects.

Form

Hibiscus tea (dried flowers, brewed), hibiscus extract capsules.

Dose

Tea: 240–500 mL 1–2x daily. Extract: 250–500 mg/day standardised.

Timing

With food (acidic — can irritate empty stomach). Anytime.

Schedule

Daily for BP.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Tooth enamel softening (acidic — rinse mouth). Mild GI upset.

Interactions

Antihypertensives — additive BP lowering. Diuretics — additive. Acetaminophen (hibiscus may alter metabolism). Chloroquine / antimalarials — reduced absorption.

Contraindications

Hypotension. Pregnancy (uterine effects at high doses).

Lab markers

Blood pressure tracking.

Food sources

Hibiscus tea is the most-studied and pleasant delivery.

Naturally rich in dietary nitrate, which the body converts to nitric oxide — boosting endurance and lowering blood pressure within hours.

Beetroot is the richest common food source of dietary nitrate (~250 mg per 250 mL of juice). Oral bacteria reduce nitrate to nitrite; the stomach converts it further to nitric oxide, the signalling molecule that relaxes blood vessels and improves oxygen efficiency in working muscle. Multiple RCTs show meaningful endurance improvements (~2–3% time-trial gains) and 4–10 mmHg systolic BP reduction. Effects start within 2–3 hours. Don't use antibacterial mouthwash — it kills the bacteria that activate the nitrate.

Form

Beetroot juice concentrate (Beet It, James White) or standardised beetroot powder. Look for nitrate content per serving (target ~400 mg / 6.4 mmol nitrate).

Dose

300–600 mg dietary nitrate per dose. Beet It 'shot' = 70 mL with ~400 mg nitrate.

Timing

2–3 hours before exercise for performance. Anytime for BP support.

Schedule

Daily for BP. Pre-event for endurance.

Side effects

Beeturia (red urine — harmless). Beetstool (also harmless, often startling). GI upset at high doses.

Interactions

Antihypertensives, nitrate medications (nitroglycerin, isosorbide) — additive BP lowering. PDE5 inhibitors (Viagra, Cialis) — additive vasodilation, potential dangerous hypotension. Antibacterial mouthwash — blocks oral nitrate-to-nitrite conversion.

Contraindications

Hypotension. On nitrate medications. Active oxalate kidney stones (beets are high in oxalates).

Lab markers

Blood pressure. Plasma nitrate/nitrite in research.

Food sources

Beets, beet greens, leafy greens (arugula, spinach), celery — all high in dietary nitrate. Cooked beets retain most nitrate.

The Italian citrus's polyphenol-rich extract lowers LDL cholesterol and triglycerides comparably to mild statin doses — without the muscle pain.

Citrus bergamia (the same fruit that gives Earl Grey tea its flavour) yields Bergamot Polyphenolic Fraction (BPF), a standardised extract with significant lipid-lowering activity. Multiple Italian RCTs (Mollace, Gliozzi) show LDL reduction of 20–30%, triglyceride reduction of 25–35%, and HDL increases — comparable to low-dose statins. Mechanism: HMG-CoA reductase inhibition (the same target as statins), without the muscle-pain side-effect profile. Useful as alternative or adjunct for those who don't tolerate statins.

Form

Bergamot Polyphenolic Fraction (BPF) or Bergavit (40% flavonoid) standardised extracts.

Dose

500–1,500 mg/day. Most trials use 500–1,000 mg standardised extract.

Timing

With food. AM or split AM/PM.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, heartburn occasionally.

Interactions

Statins — additive effect (often beneficial — can allow lower statin dose). CYP3A4 substrates — bergamot is a CYP3A4 inhibitor (similar to grapefruit). Anticoagulants — mild interaction.

Contraindications

On CYP3A4-sensitive medications (calcium channel blockers, certain statins, sirolimus) without monitoring. Pregnancy.

Lab markers

Lipid panel (LDL, HDL, triglycerides). hs-CRP.

Food sources

Bergamot oranges aren't commonly eaten — too bitter. Extract is the practical form.

Rice fermented with red yeast contains monacolin K — chemically identical to lovastatin. Effective for cholesterol; carries the same risks as a statin.

Red yeast rice is a TCM food made by fermenting rice with Monascus purpureus yeast. The fermentation produces monacolin K — the same molecule as the prescription statin lovastatin. So this isn't really a 'natural alternative' to statins; it IS a statin, in unregulated form. The dose of active drug varies widely between products, so dosing is unpredictable. Also potentially contaminated with citrinin (nephrotoxic). Genuinely effective for lipid lowering, but the muscle-pain and liver-enzyme risks are the same as any statin. Take only with provider monitoring.

Form

Standardised red yeast rice stating monacolin K content. Citrinin-tested products only.

Dose

1,200–2,400 mg/day, providing ~5–10 mg monacolin K. Don't combine with prescription statins.

Timing

PM with food (statin metabolism is more active overnight).

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Same as statins: muscle pain, weakness, fatigue, liver enzyme elevation. Rhabdomyolysis (rare). Cognitive complaints in some.

Interactions

Same as prescription statins. CYP3A4 inhibitors (grapefruit, certain antibiotics, antifungals, calcium channel blockers) raise blood levels dangerously. Anticoagulants — interaction. Niacin — additive muscle risk.

Contraindications

Already on a statin. Active liver disease. Pregnancy / breastfeeding. Recent rhabdomyolysis. Heavy alcohol use.

Lab markers

Lipid panel, liver enzymes (ALT, AST), CK (creatine kinase) if muscle pain develops. Same monitoring as prescription statins.

Food sources

Used as a food colorant and flavoring in Chinese cuisine — Peking duck, char siu pork — but in much smaller medicinal doses.

Standardised oleuropein from olive leaves. Modest blood pressure reduction, antiviral / antimicrobial action, and antioxidant support.

The leaves of the olive tree (Olea europaea) contain oleuropein — a polyphenol with stronger antioxidant activity than the same plant's olive oil. Has antimicrobial action against viruses, bacteria, and fungi (used historically in Mediterranean folk medicine for fever and infection), modest blood pressure reduction, and lipid-improving effects. Useful as immune adjunct and as a milder long-term cardiovascular polyphenol.

Form

Olive leaf extract standardised to 15–20% oleuropein.

Dose

500–1,000 mg/day. Higher doses (up to 2,000 mg) for active immune use.

Timing

With food. AM common.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. GI upset, headache. Mild blood-thinning at high doses.

Interactions

Antihypertensives — additive BP lowering. Anticoagulants — mild additive. Diabetes medications — additive glucose lowering.

Contraindications

Hypotension. Pregnancy / breastfeeding (limited data). Pre-surgery (mild blood-thinning).

Lab markers

BP, lipid panel, fasting glucose.

Food sources

Olive leaf tea is a Mediterranean traditional preparation. Olive oil contains some of the same polyphenols (in much smaller amounts).

The cold-and-flu herb. Real but modest reductions in respiratory infection rate and duration when taken early — quality varies wildly between products.

Echinacea purpurea and angustifolia are American flowering plants used by Plains Indigenous peoples and adopted into Western herbalism for immune support. Multiple meta-analyses confirm modest but real reductions in cold incidence (~30%) and duration (~1 day) — especially when started at first symptoms. The catch: product quality varies enormously, and not all species / preparation methods are equivalent. Standardised E. purpurea aerial-part extracts (Echinaforce / Echinacin) have the most consistent evidence.

Form

Echinaforce (A. Vogel — most-studied), EchinaGuard, or other standardised E. purpurea preparations. Aerial parts > root for purpurea.

Dose

500–1,000 mg standardised extract 3x daily at onset of cold symptoms or for prevention.

Timing

With or without food. Split across the day.

Schedule

Acute use: 7–10 days at first sign of cold. Prevention: 5 days on, 2 days off, in cold-and-flu season.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, skin rash. Allergic reactions in those allergic to Asteraceae family (ragweed, daisy).

Interactions

Immunosuppressants — opposing. Caffeine metabolism (mild slowing). CYP3A4 substrates — modest interactions.

Contraindications

Active autoimmune disease (relative). On immunosuppressants. Allergy to ragweed / Asteraceae family.

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Echinacea tea (mild), traditional tincture.

An Ayurvedic and TCM bitter herb with the strongest evidence of any single herb for shortening colds. Used clinically in Scandinavia.

Andrographis paniculata ('king of bitters') is used in Ayurveda and TCM as an immune and 'cold-clearing' herb. Modern Scandinavian RCTs are among the strongest in herbal immune research: andrographis shortens cold duration by 1–2 days and reduces severity meaningfully. Active compound is andrographolide. Often paired with eleuthero in the proprietary Kan Jang formulation. Bitter — capsules preferred over tinctures.

Form

Standardised andrographis extract to ≥10% andrographolide. Kan Jang (andrographis + eleuthero) is the well-studied Scandinavian formulation.

Dose

200–400 mg standardised extract 3x daily during acute illness. 100 mg/day for prevention.

Timing

With food (bitter). Split across the day.

Schedule

Acute: 5–10 days at onset. Prevention: cycle 4–6 weeks on / off through respiratory season.

Side effects

Bitter taste, GI upset, headache. Rare allergic reactions. Some testosterone-lowering effects at high doses (animal data).

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild additive. Antihypertensives — additive BP lowering. Immunosuppressants — opposing. Diabetes medications — mild additive.

Contraindications

Pregnancy (uterine stimulant, abortifacient). Autoimmune disease (immune-stimulating). Active fertility goals in men (androgen effects). Bleeding disorders.

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Not in everyday food.

A dark purple berry traditionally used for colds and flu. Multiple trials show meaningful shortening of flu duration when taken at onset.

Sambucus nigra (black elderberry) is the European elder, used as folk medicine for centuries. Its anthocyanins and flavonoids inhibit viral entry and replication (especially influenza), and modulate immune cytokine production. Best evidence is in influenza — trials show reduction of symptom duration by ~4 days when started within 48 hours of onset (Sambucol RCTs). Also useful for general cold support. Tasty as a syrup — kids tolerate it well.

Form

Standardised black elderberry extract or syrup (Sambucol, Sinupret). Lozenges and gummies also common.

Dose

Syrup: 15 mL (1 tbsp) 4x daily during acute illness. Capsules: 500–1,000 mg/day. Prevention: half acute dose.

Timing

Anytime. Split across the day during acute use.

Schedule

Acute: 5–10 days at onset of symptoms. Prevention: daily during peak respiratory season.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Raw / unripe elderberries are toxic (cyanogenic glycosides — must be cooked or commercially processed). Mild GI upset.

Interactions

Immunosuppressants — opposing. Diuretics — additive mild effect.

Contraindications

Active autoimmune disease (relative). On immunosuppressants. Never consume raw / unripe elderberries.

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Cooked elderberries in syrups, jams, wines. Never raw.

A North American root rich in berberine — used as a short-term antimicrobial for gut infections, mouth sores, and sinusitis. Overharvested in the wild.

Hydrastis canadensis is a forest root native to eastern North America, traditionally used by Cherokee and adopted into Western herbalism for infections. Its main alkaloid berberine is the same one in the berberine entry — but goldenseal also contains hydrastine and canadine, which add their own activity. Used mostly as a short-term antimicrobial for gut infections (SIBO, traveler's diarrhea adjunct), mouth sores, sinusitis, and skin issues. The plant is severely overharvested in the wild — only buy from sustainable cultivation sources.

Form

Goldenseal root extract standardised to alkaloid content. Goldenseal tincture.

Dose

500–1,000 mg root powder 3x daily, or 250–500 mg standardised extract 2x daily.

Timing

With food.

Schedule

Short-term only (5–14 days during acute use). Not for chronic daily use — can disrupt gut flora and B-vitamin absorption.

Side effects

GI upset, mouth / throat irritation (if not encapsulated). Long-term use can reduce B-vitamin absorption.

Interactions

CYP3A4 substrates — goldenseal is a potent CYP3A4 inhibitor (similar to grapefruit but stronger). Many drug interactions. Anticoagulants — mild additive. Cyclosporine, statins, calcium channel blockers — significant interactions.

Contraindications

Pregnancy (uterine stimulant, possible kernicterus in newborn). Newborn / infant. Severe hypertension. On any narrow-therapeutic-window medication without provider input.

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Not in everyday food.

A Peruvian vine traditional for immune support and inflammation. Modest evidence for rheumatoid arthritis and immune modulation; classic Amazon herbal medicine.

Uncaria tomentosa is a vine of the Amazon rainforest, named for its hooked thorns. Used by Asháninka and other Indigenous communities for centuries as an immune tonic, anti-inflammatory, and wound healer. Modern research supports modest effects in rheumatoid arthritis (joint pain and stiffness reduction), immune modulation, and antiviral activity. Choose pentacyclic oxindole alkaloid (POA) chemotype rather than the TOA (tetracyclic) chemotype — they have opposing effects on the immune system.

Form

Standardised cat's claw extract — POA chemotype, TOA-free (Saventaro is the well-studied form).

Dose

20–100 mg POA-standardised extract daily, or 250–500 mg raw bark extract 2–3x daily.

Timing

With food.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, headache, dizziness. Rare allergic reactions.

Interactions

Immunosuppressants — opposing. Anticoagulants — mild additive. Antihypertensives — mild additive. CYP3A4 substrates — possible interactions.

Contraindications

Active autoimmune disease (relative — immune-stimulating). On immunosuppressants. Pregnancy / breastfeeding (uterine effects). Recent organ transplant.

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Not in everyday food.

European blueberry cousin with anthocyanins concentrated for eye health and microcirculation. WWII pilot lore aside, real benefits for venous insufficiency and eye fatigue.

Vaccinium myrtillus (European bilberry) contains higher concentrations of anthocyanins than American blueberries. RAF pilots in WWII were said to eat bilberry jam to improve night vision (a story now considered apocryphal), but the underlying mechanism is real — anthocyanins support retinal function, improve microcirculation, and reduce capillary fragility. Better evidence in chronic venous insufficiency, diabetic retinopathy, and computer-vision-related eye fatigue than in healthy people seeking vision enhancement.

Form

Standardised bilberry extract to 25% anthocyanins (Mirtoselect, Mirtogenol).

Dose

80–160 mg standardised extract 2x daily.

Timing

With food. Split AM/PM.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, rare allergic reaction.

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild additive blood-thinning. Diabetes medications — mild glucose lowering.

Contraindications

Bleeding disorders. Pre-surgery (stop 1–2 weeks before).

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

European bilberries (limited availability), blueberries (lower anthocyanin concentration but similar profile). Black raspberry, blackcurrant also good food sources of related anthocyanins.

The classic women's hormone herb. Raises progesterone (indirectly), normalises menstrual cycles, and is the most evidence-backed natural intervention for PMS and PMDD.

Vitex agnus-castus (chasteberry, monk's pepper) is a Mediterranean shrub used for women's hormonal complaints since antiquity. Its mechanism is unusual: it doesn't contain hormones, it acts on the pituitary's dopamine D2 receptors to reduce prolactin secretion. Lower prolactin → better luteal-phase function → more progesterone production → less estrogen dominance → fewer PMS symptoms. The German Commission E and most European pharmacopeias accept it for PMS, irregular cycles, and breast tenderness. The most evidence-backed herbal supplement for women's cyclical symptoms.

Form

Standardised vitex extract (BNO-1095, Ze 440 — the forms used in most German trials). Look for ≥0.5% agnusides on the label.

Dose

20–40 mg/day standardised extract. Most trials use 20 mg of BNO-1095.

Timing

AM. Once daily.

Schedule

Daily, ongoing for cycle regulation. Allow 3 full menstrual cycles before judging effects.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. GI upset, headache, acne (transient), menstrual changes (the point — but can be unwanted at first). Skin reactions rare.

Interactions

Hormonal contraceptives — vitex may reduce efficacy by altering hormone signalling. HRT — interaction unclear; coordinate with provider. Dopamine agonists (bromocriptine, cabergoline) — additive at the dopamine receptor. Antipsychotics (dopamine antagonists) — opposing.

Contraindications

Pregnancy / breastfeeding (theoretical hormonal effects). On hormonal contraception (use additional birth control or avoid). Hormone-sensitive cancers. Pituitary disorders. Active IVF cycle.

Lab markers

Cycle tracking (length, symptoms). Progesterone (day 21 of cycle). Prolactin if elevated baseline.

Food sources

Not present in food.

An isoflavone-rich plant used for menopausal symptoms. Real phytoestrogenic activity — gentler than HRT, real benefits for some.

Trifolium pratense (red clover) is rich in isoflavones — biochanin A, formononetin, daidzein, and genistein — which weakly bind estrogen receptors. Standardised extracts (Promensil is the most-studied) have moderate evidence in menopausal vasomotor symptoms (hot flashes, night sweats), bone density support, and cardiovascular markers. Effect size is modest compared to HRT, real compared to placebo. The phytoestrogenic activity matters — hormone-sensitive cancers and active HRT users need caution.

Form

Standardised red clover extract (Promensil — 40 mg isoflavones per tablet, well-studied).

Dose

40–80 mg isoflavones daily.

Timing

With food. AM common.

Schedule

Daily during menopausal transition.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, breast tenderness (phytoestrogenic).

Interactions

Anticoagulants (contains coumarins) — mild additive blood-thinning. Hormonal medications (HRT, contraceptives) — interaction unclear. Tamoxifen — relative.

Contraindications

Hormone-sensitive cancers (breast, endometrial, ovarian). Pregnancy / breastfeeding. Bleeding disorders.

Lab markers

Estradiol, bone density (DEXA), lipid panel.

Food sources

Red clover blossoms in herbal teas (lower dose). Soy and legumes contain related isoflavones at higher culinary doses.

Often marketed as 'natural progesterone' — but the body doesn't actually convert wild yam to hormones. Real effects are mild, anti-inflammatory and symptomatic.

Wild yam (Dioscorea villosa and related species) contains diosgenin, a sapogenin that's used industrially as a starting material to synthesise progesterone, DHEA, and other steroid hormones in factories. The body, however, cannot perform this conversion — so 'wild yam = natural progesterone' marketing is misleading. Real effects come from anti-inflammatory action and possibly weak phytoestrogenic activity. Modest evidence in menopause symptom relief and menstrual cramps. Useful enough at the margins; not a hormone replacement.

Form

Wild yam extract standardised to diosgenin. Topical wild yam creams (often co-formulated with bioidentical progesterone — read label carefully).

Dose

Extract: 300–500 mg 2–3x daily.

Timing

With food.

Schedule

Daily during cyclical / menopausal symptom periods.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset at high doses.

Interactions

Hormonal medications — theoretical (weak phytoestrogenic effects). Anticoagulants — mild.

Contraindications

Hormone-sensitive cancers (relative). Pregnancy. Protein S deficiency.

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Wild yam itself (the plant) is generally not eaten — different species from sweet potato or culinary yams.

A Southeast Asian root traditional for vitality. Modestly raises free testosterone (mostly by lowering SHBG and cortisol), supports libido, and reduces stress markers.

Tongkat ali is a tall Southeast Asian shrub whose roots have been used as a traditional tonic in Malaysia, Indonesia, and Vietnam for centuries. Its main bioactives are quassinoids (eurycomanone is the marker compound). Modern research has focused on its effects on male testosterone status — it doesn't dramatically raise total testosterone production, but it lowers SHBG (sex hormone binding globulin) and cortisol, which raises the bioavailable free testosterone. Effects on libido, mood, and stress resilience are reasonably well-documented in middle-aged men with low baseline androgens.

Form

Standardised extract (LongJack 100, Physta) — standardised to ~1–2% eurycomanone or marker compounds. Tongkat Ali by KSM-66 or Akarali — branded forms with good standardisation. Avoid raw root powder of unverified origin (quality varies wildly).

Dose

200–400 mg/day standardised extract. Most trials use 200–300 mg.

Timing

AM with food. Some find it mildly activating — avoid PM.

Schedule

Cycle: 8 weeks on, 2 weeks off. Continuous use OK for many but cycling preserves sensitivity.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Insomnia, irritability, restlessness — usually means dose is too high or too late in day. Mild GI upset.

Interactions

Anti-androgen medications — opposing action. Diabetes medications — mild glucose effects. Anticoagulants (mild).

Contraindications

Prostate cancer or family history (caution — testosterone-supporting effect). Heart conditions (some quassinoids have cardiac effects at very high doses). Pregnancy.

Lab markers

Total + free testosterone, SHBG, cortisol. DHEA-S, estradiol for full picture.

Food sources

Not present in everyday food.

A West African shrub used traditionally for libido. Animal data shows striking testosterone-raising effects; human evidence is still very thin. Often stacked with tongkat ali.

Fadogia agrestis is a flowering shrub used in traditional medicine in Nigeria and Ghana as an aphrodisiac. Animal studies (mostly in rats) show large increases in testosterone production via direct stimulation of the Leydig cells in the testes — bypassing the HPG axis. The supplement got into the wider conversation when Andrew Huberman discussed it on his podcast, and it's now widely used (often paired with tongkat ali) for male testosterone support. The catch: human trial data is essentially absent. Animal data also suggests potential testicular toxicity at high doses with prolonged use. Take seriously — but with caution, low dose, and cycling.

Form

Fadogia agrestis root or stem extract. Standardisation is variable — buy from reputable suppliers with third-party testing.

Dose

300–600 mg/day. Some users go up to 1,000 mg/day but this exceeds what animal-data safety extrapolation supports.

Timing

AM with food.

Schedule

Cycle: 8 weeks on, 4 weeks off (Huberman's stated protocol). Don't run continuously — animal liver / testicular toxicity at sustained high doses is a real concern.

Side effects

Limited human data. Animal data: testicular damage at high doses with prolonged use. Reported user side effects: aggression, irritability, sleep disturbance, headache.

Interactions

Limited data. Theoretical: anti-androgen medications, hormone-sensitive medications.

Contraindications

Liver disease (animal hepatotoxicity at high doses). Active or family history of prostate cancer. Pregnancy / breastfeeding. Anyone unwilling to monitor with bloodwork (LFTs, testosterone).

Lab markers

Total + free testosterone, SHBG, estradiol. Liver enzymes (ALT, AST) before and during cycles — non-negotiable given the animal hepatotoxicity signal.

Food sources

Not present in everyday food outside West Africa.

Traditional Ayurvedic and TCM herb sold for testosterone — but RCTs don't show testosterone elevation. Real effects are on libido and sexual satisfaction (probably via different mechanisms).

Tribulus terrestris (puncture vine) is one of the most-marketed 'testosterone boosters' in supplements — and the marketing is largely wrong. Multiple well-designed trials in men show no significant testosterone elevation. What tribulus does do, with reasonable evidence, is improve libido and sexual satisfaction in both men and women — likely through nitric oxide pathway effects and possibly some central nervous system action. So: useful for sexual function, mostly placebo for testosterone. The Bulgarian variety standardised to protodioscin has the most-studied actives.

Form

Bulgarian Tribulus terrestris extract standardised to ≥40% saponins, with specified protodioscin content. Brand: Tribulus 40% (NOW), Vitanol.

Dose

750–1,500 mg/day standardised extract. Split across the day.

Timing

With food. AM and midday.

Schedule

Cycle: 8 weeks on, 2–4 weeks off.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. GI upset, sleep disturbance, irritability in some.

Interactions

Diabetes medications — mild glucose lowering. Antihypertensives — mild BP effects. Lithium — diuretic effect may alter levels.

Contraindications

Pregnancy / breastfeeding. Hormone-sensitive cancers. Active prostate cancer or BPH (unclear safety). Pre-surgery (mild blood pressure effects).

Lab markers

Total + free testosterone, estradiol if tracking hormonal effects (mostly to confirm tribulus doesn't change them).

Food sources

Not present in everyday food.

A wild-harvested male pollen rich in plant phytoandrogens. Traditional Chinese tonic with anecdotal testosterone-supporting reputation; clinical evidence thin.

Pine pollen from species like Pinus massoniana and P. tabuliformis has been used in TCM as a vitality tonic for centuries. Notable in supplement culture for containing measurable amounts of phyto-testosterone, DHEA, and androstenedione — plant-source bioidentical androgens. Anecdotal reports support modest hormonal effects in men; clinical evidence is sparse. Also delivers a broad nutrient profile (amino acids, B vitamins, trace minerals). Cracked cell wall is critical for absorption.

Form

Cracked-cell-wall pine pollen powder. Tincture (alcohol-extracted, more concentrated androgen content). Third-party tested for contaminants.

Dose

Powder: 1–3 g/day. Tincture: 1–4 mL 1–3x daily.

Timing

Tincture sublingually (held under tongue). Powder in food / smoothies.

Schedule

Daily, often cycled (5 on / 2 off).

Side effects

Pollen allergy — start small. Mild GI upset. Estrogenic effects in men using high doses long-term (anecdotal).

Interactions

Hormonal medications — possible interaction (hormonal content). Anti-androgen medications — opposing.

Contraindications

Pollen allergies (severe). Hormone-sensitive cancers. Pregnancy / breastfeeding. Children.

Lab markers

Total + free testosterone, estradiol if running long-term.

Food sources

Pine pollen IS food in some traditional Chinese diets — eaten as a tonic powder in honey or tea.

The men's prostate / hair herb. Modest 5-alpha-reductase inhibition — fewer effects than finasteride, but without the sexual side-effect risk.

Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) is a palm native to the southeastern US. Its berry extract weakly inhibits 5-alpha-reductase — the enzyme that converts testosterone into DHT (dihydrotestosterone), the more potent androgen that drives prostate enlargement and male pattern baldness. Effects are real but modest — useful as a milder, safer alternative to finasteride for benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and hair loss. Some men get noticeable benefit; many don't notice much. Decades of European use, well-tolerated, and a reasonable first try before pharmaceuticals.

Form

Liposterolic saw palmetto extract standardised to 85–95% fatty acids and sterols. Permixon and Prostamol are well-studied European brands.

Dose

320 mg/day of standardised extract (single or split dose). 160 mg twice daily is the European standard.

Timing

With food. AM or PM.

Schedule

Daily, ongoing. Effects accumulate over months.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, headache, dizziness. Rare: decreased libido, mild gynecomastia (much less than finasteride).

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild additive (case reports of bleeding). Hormonal medications (androgens, anti-androgens) — interaction with mechanism. Iron — saw palmetto may reduce absorption.

Contraindications

Pregnancy / breastfeeding (theoretical hormonal effects). Bleeding disorders. Pre-surgery (stop 1–2 weeks before). Hormone-sensitive cancers — coordinate with oncology.

Lab markers

PSA (saw palmetto generally doesn't lower PSA the way finasteride does — useful to know for cancer screening interpretation). DHT, testosterone, IPSS score for BPH.

Food sources

Not present in everyday food.

Modulates SHBG (sex hormone binding globulin) — making more free testosterone bioavailable. Also a moderate prostate herb (often combined with saw palmetto).

Urtica dioica root (distinct from the leaf, which has different uses) contains lignans and lectins that bind to SHBG, freeing testosterone from its carrier protein and increasing the bioavailable / free fraction. Used clinically in Germany for benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) — improves urinary symptoms comparable to mild medications. Often combined with saw palmetto for prostate stacks; on its own for men trying to free up bound testosterone.

Form

Standardised nettle root extract. Often combined with saw palmetto and pygeum in prostate formulas.

Dose

120–360 mg/day standardised extract, or 4–6 g/day root.

Timing

With food. Often split.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, allergic reactions rare.

Interactions

Antihypertensives — possible additive (mild diuretic effect). Diabetes medications — mild glucose effects. Lithium — diuretic effect can alter levels.

Contraindications

Pregnancy. Hormone-sensitive cancers (relative — hormonal modulation).

Lab markers

Total + free testosterone, SHBG. PSA, IPSS for BPH.

Food sources

Nettle leaf is edible (cooked / dried — raw nettle stings). The root is the medicinal part used in supplements.

An African plum tree bark used in European clinical practice for BPH. Decent evidence for urinary flow improvement, especially combined with saw palmetto and nettle root.

Pygeum africanum bark extract has been a prescription medication for benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) in France since 1969. Its phytosterols and triterpenes reduce prostate inflammation, improve urinary flow, and reduce nocturia. Modest standalone effect; stronger combined with saw palmetto. Sustainability concern — wild pygeum is overharvested; choose ethically sourced products.

Form

Pygeum africanum bark extract standardised to 14% triterpenes.

Dose

100–200 mg/day standardised extract.

Timing

With food. Often split.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset.

Interactions

Generally clean.

Contraindications

Pregnancy / breastfeeding. Use ethically sourced — sustainability concern.

Lab markers

PSA, IPSS score, urinary flow.

Food sources

Not in everyday food.

A simple sugar that prevents E. coli from sticking to the bladder wall. One of the most effective non-antibiotic interventions for recurrent UTIs.

D-mannose is a simple monosaccharide that's poorly absorbed by the body — most of it passes through and is excreted in urine. Once in the bladder, it binds to FimH receptors on E. coli bacteria (the cause of ~85% of UTIs), preventing them from attaching to bladder wall cells. Without adhesion, bacteria simply wash out with urination. RCTs support its use for UTI prevention in women with recurrent infection — comparable in some trials to long-term low-dose antibiotic prophylaxis, without the resistance or microbiome costs.

Form

D-mannose powder or capsules. Powder dissolves easily in water. Often combined with cranberry extract.

Dose

Prevention: 2 g/day. Acute UTI (alongside or after antibiotics): 2 g every 2–3 hours for the first 1–2 days, then 2 g 3x daily for 3–5 days.

Timing

With water, anytime. Don't combine with high-glucose meals (mannose absorption rises with sweet meals).

Schedule

Daily for prevention in women with recurrent UTIs. As-needed for acute treatment.

Side effects

Generally very well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, loose stool at very high doses. Theoretical: blood sugar effects in diabetics (small portion is absorbed).

Interactions

Generally clean. Diabetics: monitor blood sugar at high doses.

Contraindications

Diabetes (relative — small absorbed fraction may modestly raise glucose). Pregnancy — safe but limited high-dose data.

Lab markers

Not standard. UTI symptom tracking. Urine culture if symptoms persist.

Food sources

Cranberries, blueberries, apples, oranges, peaches, broccoli, green beans. Food amounts are too small for therapeutic effect.

The classic UTI-prevention berry. Works through proanthocyanidins (PACs) that prevent E. coli adhesion — the same principle as D-mannose, by a different mechanism.

Cranberries contain proanthocyanidins (PACs), particularly A-type PACs, that prevent E. coli from adhering to the bladder wall. The mechanism is anti-adhesion, not antibacterial. Cranberry juice was the folk remedy for centuries; modern concentrated extracts deliver therapeutic PAC doses in capsule form without the sugar load. Effective for prevention of recurrent UTIs in some women (Cochrane reviews have been mixed — depends on PAC content and study design). Less useful for acute UTI treatment than D-mannose.

Form

Cranberry extract standardised to PAC content — look for ≥36 mg PACs per dose (the EFSA-recognised threshold). Cran-Max, Pacran are well-studied. Juice is much less concentrated and includes significant sugar.

Dose

36–72 mg PACs daily (typically 500 mg cranberry extract or one capsule).

Timing

With or without food. PM is common (since UTI bacteria multiply overnight in urine).

Schedule

Daily for prevention.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset. Tannins can cause minor stomach upset on empty stomach.

Interactions

Warfarin — multiple case reports of elevated INR with cranberry juice / high-dose extract. Monitor closely or avoid. Mild CYP enzyme effects in some studies.

Contraindications

On warfarin without monitoring. History of oxalate kidney stones (cranberry is high in oxalates).

Lab markers

Not standard. UTI symptom tracking.

Food sources

Fresh cranberries (very tart), dried cranberries (usually heavily sweetened), unsweetened cranberry juice. Food doses are far below therapeutic — supplementation is more practical.

An Ayurvedic root that raises cAMP — supports body composition, cardiac function, and hormone signalling. Best evidence in body fat loss.

Coleus forskohlii (now Plectranthus barbatus) is an Indian member of the mint family. Its diterpene forskolin activates adenylate cyclase, raising intracellular cAMP — a major second messenger affecting fat metabolism, cardiac contractility, hormone signalling, and bronchodilation. The best human trial evidence is in body composition: small RCTs (Godard et al., Henderson et al.) show modest fat loss and lean mass preservation in obese / overweight men with 8–12 weeks of use.

Form

Coleus forskohlii root extract standardised to 10% forskolin. ForsLean is the well-studied branded form.

Dose

250 mg of 10% extract (25 mg forskolin) twice daily.

Timing

With food. AM and PM split.

Schedule

Daily for body composition; cycle 8 weeks on / 2 off.

Side effects

Mild blood-pressure lowering. GI upset, headache. Mild flushing.

Interactions

Antihypertensives — additive BP lowering. Anticoagulants — additive blood-thinning. Cardiac medications (digoxin) — additive effects via cAMP.

Contraindications

Hypotension. Bleeding disorders. Pre-surgery. Active peptic ulcer (cAMP can elevate stomach acid). Polycystic kidney disease (theoretical via cAMP). Pregnancy / breastfeeding.

Lab markers

BP, weight / body composition.

Food sources

Not in everyday food.

An alpha-2 antagonist from West African yohimbe bark. Strong fat-loss and erectile effects — and an equally strong cardiovascular and anxiety side-effect profile. Use very carefully.

Yohimbine is an alkaloid from Pausinystalia yohimbe bark and a real pharmacologic agent — it blocks alpha-2 adrenergic receptors, raising norepinephrine and triggering lipolysis (especially in stubborn, alpha-2-rich body fat like the lower abdomen and thighs). Also has decades of clinical use for erectile dysfunction. The catch: the same mechanism that drives the fat-loss and ED effects also raises blood pressure, heart rate, anxiety, and panic. Serious interaction risks with antidepressants and stimulants. Take this one seriously.

Form

Yohimbine HCl (the standardised hydrochloride form, much more reliable than crude yohimbe bark extracts).

Dose

0.1–0.2 mg/kg body weight (typically 5–15 mg per dose). Start low. Some users go 0.2 mg/kg twice daily.

Timing

Fasted (insulin blunts yohimbine's lipolytic effect). Pre-workout. Acute use, not chronic.

Schedule

As-needed, cycled. Not for daily long-term use.

Side effects

Anxiety, panic attacks, hypertension, tachycardia, sweating, jitters, insomnia, GI upset, headache. Real and common at meaningful doses.

Interactions

SSRIs, SNRIs, MAOIs, tricyclics — serotonin syndrome and hypertensive crisis risk. Stimulants (caffeine, amphetamines) — additive cardiovascular effects. Antihypertensives — opposing. Alpha-blockers (for BPH) — opposing.

Contraindications

On any antidepressant. Hypertension. Heart disease, arrhythmia. Anxiety / panic disorders. PTSD. Bipolar disorder. Pregnancy. Kidney or liver disease. Elderly.

Lab markers

BP, HR. Subjective tracking.

Food sources

Not in food.

The brain mushroom. Stimulates Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) and BDNF — supports cognition, mood, and (uniquely) peripheral nerve regeneration.

Lion's mane is an edible mushroom that contains unique compounds (hericenones in the fruiting body, erinacines in the mycelium) that cross the blood-brain barrier and stimulate Nerve Growth Factor synthesis. NGF supports the maintenance, growth, and regeneration of neurons — making lion's mane one of the very few supplements with a plausible mechanism for actual nerve repair. Human trials have shown cognitive improvements in mild cognitive impairment, modest mood benefits, and notable benefit in peripheral neuropathy and post-injury nerve recovery. It's also a culinary mushroom — meaty texture, edible at standard meal portions.

Form

Dual-extract (water + alcohol) from fruiting body — the most evidence-aligned form. Fruiting body extract standardised to beta-glucans (>20%) is the next best. Mycelium-on-grain is cheaper but contains substantial filler grain; choose only if labelled with verified beta-glucan content. Look for third-party tested products.

Dose

500–1,000 mg of fruiting body extract, 1–3x daily (1,000–3,000 mg/day total). Higher end for cognitive / nerve indications.

Timing

AM with food. Splitting doses (AM + lunch) gives more sustained effects than single dose.

Schedule

Daily. Some users cycle (5 days on, 2 off, or 4 weeks on / 1 off) but evidence for needing this is thin.

Side effects

Generally very well-tolerated. Rarely: itchy skin, GI upset, mild contact dermatitis (in mushroom-allergic individuals).

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild antiplatelet effect at high doses (clinical relevance small). Generally clean.

Contraindications

Mushroom allergy. Bleeding disorders (caution at high doses).

Lab markers

Not standard. Functional cognitive testing (MoCA, computerised batteries) for objective tracking.

Food sources

The mushroom itself, eaten fresh or cooked — meaty white pom-pom-shaped mushroom, increasingly available at farmers' markets and Asian groceries. Excellent in stir-fries and as a meat substitute. Eating it as food provides modest benefit; therapeutic doses require concentrated extract.

The 'mushroom of immortality' in Chinese medicine. Calms the nervous system, supports sleep, modulates immune function, and gently supports the liver. Take at night.

Reishi is a hard, woody mushroom used in East Asian traditional medicine for over 2,000 years. Its bioactive compounds (triterpenoids, beta-glucans, ganoderic acids) act on the nervous system (calming, sleep-promoting), the immune system (modulating — calms over-active immunity, supports under-active), and the liver. Unlike stimulating adaptogens, reishi is sedating-leaning — it's usually taken in the evening. Cancer-supportive research (especially in conjunction with chemotherapy in Asia) is ongoing. For most users, the noticeable effect is reduced anxiety and better sleep within 1–2 weeks.

Form

Dual-extract (water + alcohol) from fruiting body — captures both the water-soluble beta-glucans and the alcohol-soluble triterpenes. Fruiting body extract standardised to >2% triterpenes. Avoid plain mycelium-on-grain without verified actives. Reishi spore-powder (broken cell wall) is a separate, more concentrated product.

Dose

1,000–3,000 mg/day of dual-extract. Spore powder: 500–1,000 mg/day.

Timing

PM, 1–2 hours before bed for sleep / calm. AM is fine for immune-only use.

Schedule

Daily. Some users cycle (5 on, 2 off) — evidence for needing this is thin.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. GI upset, dry mouth, nosebleed at very high doses. Mild blood-thinning effect.

Interactions

Anticoagulants and antiplatelets — additive, hold before surgery. Immunosuppressants — reishi modulates immunity (can interact either direction). Antihypertensives — additive BP lowering.

Contraindications

Active bleeding disorders. Pre-surgery (stop 7–14 days before). On immunosuppressants (e.g. after organ transplant) without provider approval.

Lab markers

Not standard. Cytokine panels (IL-6, TNF-α) in research contexts.

Food sources

Reishi is too tough and bitter to eat as food — it's traditionally consumed as a long-simmered tea or extract.

The energy mushroom. Used by Chinese olympians and Sherpas — modestly increases VO2max, supports endurance, and lifts libido.

Cordyceps is the famous 'caterpillar fungus' (wild Cordyceps sinensis grows from caterpillar carcasses in the high Himalayas — wildly expensive). The cultivated Cordyceps militaris on grain or other substrates contains the same active compounds (cordycepin, polysaccharides, adenosine derivatives) at a fraction of the cost. The Chinese women's track team made it famous in 1993 by setting world records; subsequent research has supported modest improvements in VO2max, exercise tolerance, and recovery — particularly in older or unfit individuals. Also has consistent effects on libido and energy. Take in the morning — it can be activating.

Form

Dual-extract (water + alcohol) from Cordyceps militaris fruiting body — the most rigorous form. CS-4 (Cordyceps sinensis strain Cs-4) — fermented mycelium, well-studied. Avoid plain mycelium-on-grain without standardisation.

Dose

1,000–3,000 mg/day of fruiting body extract.

Timing

AM with food. Mildly energising — avoid PM.

Schedule

Daily. Some users cycle (5 on, 2 off) but evidence is thin for needing this.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, dry mouth, insomnia if taken PM. Rare allergic reactions.

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild additive blood-thinning. Immunosuppressants (mild immune modulation). Diabetes medications (mild glucose effects).

Contraindications

Mushroom allergy. Active bleeding disorders. Pre-surgery (stop 1–2 weeks before). Pregnancy / lactation — limited data.

Lab markers

Not standard. Functional: VO2max, fatigue scores, libido tracking.

Food sources

Cordyceps mushrooms in soups and Asian dishes — increasingly available fresh as cultivation has improved. Wild Cordyceps sinensis is one of the most expensive natural commodities on earth and overharvested.

The 'king of mushrooms' in Russian and Siberian folk medicine. Highest antioxidant load of any mushroom and a long traditional use for immune and gut health.

Chaga is a sterile conk that grows on birch trees in cold northern climates — Siberia, Scandinavia, Canada, Northern US. It looks more like burnt charcoal than a mushroom. Its dark colour comes from melanin and a high concentration of polyphenols and betulinic acid (absorbed from birch bark). Traditional uses include immune support, GI health, and as a 'longevity tonic.' Modern interest is mostly in its antioxidant profile (one of the highest ORAC values of any food) and modest immune modulation. The evidence base is mostly preclinical — human trials are limited.

Form

Dual-extract from wild-harvested chaga — best preserves the polyphenols and the betulinic acid. Chaga tea is the traditional form. Avoid mycelium-on-grain (chaga is hard to cultivate; most powders are wild-harvested conks).

Dose

500–3,000 mg/day of extract. Traditional tea: 1–3 cups daily.

Timing

Anytime, with or without food. AM common.

Schedule

Daily. Periodic breaks optional.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Rare bleeding (mild antiplatelet effect). Theoretical kidney stone risk at very high doses (high oxalate content).

Interactions

Anticoagulants and antiplatelets — mild additive blood-thinning. Diabetes medications (modest glucose effects). Immunosuppressants (immune modulation).

Contraindications

Bleeding disorders. Pre-surgery (stop 1–2 weeks before). History of oxalate kidney stones (chaga is high in oxalates). Pregnancy / lactation.

Lab markers

Not standard.

Food sources

Chaga itself — usually consumed as tea brewed from chunks of the conk. Hard to find as a casual ingredient outside specialty shops.

The most rigorously studied mushroom for cancer adjunct treatment. Active compounds (PSK, PSP) are licensed cancer adjuncts in Japan.

Turkey tail is a common bracket fungus with striped concentric markings (hence the name). Its two main bioactive polysaccharide-protein complexes — PSK (polysaccharide-K, marketed as Krestin) and PSP (polysaccharide peptide) — are licensed prescription cancer adjuncts in Japan, where PSK is used alongside chemotherapy for gastric and colorectal cancer with documented survival benefits. Outside the cancer-adjunct space, turkey tail supports immune modulation broadly, gut microbiome diversity, and post-illness recovery. The evidence base is among the strongest of any functional mushroom.

Form

Dual-extract from fruiting body, ideally standardised to beta-glucan content. PSK / PSP-enriched products for stronger immune effect. Avoid mycelium-on-grain without verified actives.

Dose

1,000–3,000 mg/day of fruiting body extract. PSK in Japanese clinical use: 3 g/day.

Timing

Anytime with food.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset (gas, bloating), darkened stools, occasional headache.

Interactions

Immunosuppressants — turkey tail is immune-stimulating; opposes intended drug effect. Chemotherapy — generally synergistic in trials, but discuss with oncology before adding.

Contraindications

Mushroom allergy. On immunosuppressants after organ transplant or for autoimmune disease (without provider input).

Lab markers

Not standard. CBC, immune panels in research / clinical contexts.

Food sources

Turkey tail itself is too tough and woody to eat as food — traditionally consumed as a long-simmered decoction / tea.

The 'dancing mushroom.' Polysaccharide-rich, with the best evidence for immune support, blood sugar control, and cancer-adjunct use of any culinary mushroom.

Maitake is a frilled, edible bracket fungus traditional in Japanese cuisine and TCM. Its bioactive beta-glucan complex (the 'D-fraction') is one of the best-studied mushroom polysaccharides — used as an adjunct in Japanese cancer therapy and showing immune modulation, blood sugar normalisation, and lipid improvements in human trials. Sliced fresh maitake is delicious (meaty, savoury); extracts deliver therapeutic doses.

Form

Maitake D-fraction (proprietary fruiting-body extract — most-studied form). Standardised maitake extract to ≥30% beta-glucans.

Dose

500–2,000 mg/day of standardised extract.

Timing

With food. Anytime.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, blood-thinning at high doses.

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild additive. Diabetes medications — additive glucose lowering. Immunosuppressants — opposing.

Contraindications

Mushroom allergy. Active autoimmune disease (immune-stimulating). Bleeding disorders. Pregnancy / breastfeeding (limited data).

Lab markers

Fasting glucose, HbA1c, lipid panel if used metabolically.

Food sources

Fresh maitake — increasingly available in farmers' markets and Asian groceries. Excellent in stir-fries and as a meat substitute.

The world's most popular culinary mushroom. Contains lentinan — a beta-glucan that's a licensed cancer adjunct in Japan — plus eritadenine, a natural cholesterol-lowering compound.

Shiitake (Lentinula edodes) is the second most-consumed mushroom globally and a cornerstone of Japanese cuisine and medicine. Its two distinct bioactives matter: lentinan (a beta-glucan that's been used clinically alongside chemotherapy in Japan since 1985) for immune modulation and cancer adjunct, and eritadenine for cholesterol management. Also a good food source of vitamin D2 (when sun-exposed), B vitamins, and copper. Eating shiitake regularly is one of the highest-impact food choices for general immune and cardiovascular support.

Form

Dual-extract from fruiting body standardised to beta-glucans. AHCC is a closely related shiitake-mycelium extract (separate entry). Fresh or dried shiitake — vitamin D2 content significantly higher in sun-dried mushrooms.

Dose

1,000–3,000 mg/day extract. Food: 100–200 g fresh shiitake several times a week.

Timing

With food. Anytime.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Shiitake dermatitis — a streaky rash from undercooked shiitake (lentinan-related). Cook thoroughly. Mild GI upset, photosensitivity rare.

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild additive. Immunosuppressants — opposing. Generally clean.

Contraindications

Mushroom allergy. Active autoimmune disease (relative — immune-stimulating). Bleeding disorders.

Lab markers

Lipid panel if used for cholesterol. Vitamin D if relying on sun-dried shiitake as a D source.

Food sources

Fresh shiitake (widely available), dried shiitake (umami-rich for stocks and braises). Sun-drying briefly before use significantly boosts vitamin D2 content.

A concentrated, partially digested shiitake-mycelium extract. Strongest single-supplement evidence for HPV clearance and one of the better immune-modulating supplements with hospital use.

AHCC is a proprietary cultured-mycelium extract developed in Japan in the 1980s — primarily from Lentinula edodes (shiitake) and related basidiomycete mushrooms. The extraction process partially digests the cell walls, yielding smaller, more bioavailable alpha-glucans alongside the standard mushroom beta-glucans. Used in over 1,000 hospitals in Japan as a cancer-therapy adjunct. The breakout English-language application: HPV clearance — Smith et al. at MD Anderson showed AHCC cleared high-risk persistent HPV infections in a majority of women across a 6-month course. Used widely for general immune support, cancer adjunct, and chronic viral infections.

Form

AHCC — proprietary trade name; multiple brands license the formulation (Quality of Life Labs, Kinoko, ImmPower).

Dose

1–3 g/day for general immune use. 3 g/day for HPV clearance (the MD Anderson protocol).

Timing

Empty stomach for systemic immune effects (away from meals). AM common.

Schedule

Daily. HPV protocols run 6+ months.

Side effects

Generally well-tolerated. Mild GI upset, headache, fatigue at high doses initially.

Interactions

Immunosuppressants — opposing. Cytochrome P450 substrates — AHCC may alter some drug levels (limited but suggestive data).

Contraindications

Active autoimmune disease (immune-stimulating). On immunosuppressants. Organ transplant recipients. Severe mushroom allergy.

Lab markers

HPV testing (Pap + HPV co-testing) — track clearance every 3–6 months. Immune panels in clinical contexts.

Food sources

Not present as such in food — the active extraction is proprietary.

The 'beauty mushroom.' A jelly-textured Chinese fungus traditionally used for skin hydration — its polysaccharides hold water like hyaluronic acid.

Tremella fuciformis is a translucent, jelly-like fungus used in TCM as a skin-and-beauty tonic for over 1,000 years. Its polysaccharides have a structural similarity to hyaluronic acid and can hold many times their weight in water. Modest modern evidence supports topical and oral hydration effects, mild immune modulation, and antioxidant activity. Often included in beauty / skincare supplement stacks alongside collagen and hyaluronic acid.

Form

Tremella extract standardised to polysaccharide content. Dried tremella can be cooked into traditional Chinese desserts.

Dose

500–2,000 mg/day extract.

Timing

Anytime, with food.

Schedule

Daily.

Side effects

Generally very well-tolerated.

Interactions

Anticoagulants — mild additive. Generally clean.

Contraindications

Mushroom allergy. Bleeding disorders (relative at high doses).

Lab markers

Visual / functional skin tracking.

Food sources

Dried tremella in Chinese desserts (snow fungus soup) — both food and medicine.

Live bacteria that colonise the gut transiently. Most benefit comes from strain-specific use cases — generic 'probiotic' isn't a single intervention.

Probiotics are live microorganisms — usually Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium species, sometimes Saccharomyces yeasts — that, when consumed in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit. They mostly don't permanently colonise the gut; their effects come from transient activity (modulating local immunity, producing short-chain fatty acids, displacing pathogens, supporting the mucus layer). The key insight: effects are strain-specific, not species-specific or generic. A study showing Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG works for traveller's diarrhea says nothing about a random L. rhamnosus product. For most healthy people without GI issues, the marginal benefit is small. The big wins are during/after antibiotics, in IBS, and for specific conditions matched to specific strains.

Form

Refrigerated multi-strain blends with named strains and CFU counts at expiration (not at manufacture). Spore-based (Bacillus coagulans, B. subtilis) — heat-stable, no refrigeration. Branded condition-specific formulations: VSL#3 / Visbiome (IBS, UC), Seed DS-01 (general / travel), Florastor (S. boulardii — antibiotic diarrhea), Culturelle (L. rhamnosus GG).

Dose

5–50 billion CFU/day from a labelled, multi-strain product. Higher doses (100–450 billion, VSL#3 territory) for IBS or UC. CFU number matters less than strain identity.

Timing

With food or shortly before — buffers stomach acid that would otherwise kill the bacteria. AM or PM.

Schedule

Daily during a course (typically 4–12 weeks). Long-term continuous use is fine but the marginal benefit drops once gut flora rebalances. Resume during/after antibiotics or travel.

Side effects

Initial bloating, gas, mild GI upset (first 1–2 weeks as flora rebalance). Rarely: histamine release (in mast-cell-sensitive individuals — some Lactobacillus strains produce histamine).

Interactions

Take 2 hours apart from oral antibiotics (the antibiotic kills the probiotic).

Contraindications

Severe immune compromise (organ transplant on immunosuppressants, neutropenia from chemotherapy, advanced HIV) — risk of probiotic-derived sepsis. Central venous catheter in place (rare risk of fungemia from S. boulardii). Critical illness in ICU (mixed evidence). Histamine intolerance (avoid histamine-producing strains).

Lab markers

Stool microbiome analysis (uBiome / Viome / Doctor's Data style) — interpretive utility debated. Symptom tracking is more practical for most.

Food sources

Fermented foods contain live cultures: yogurt, kefir, sauerkraut, kimchi, miso, tempeh, kombucha, traditional pickles (brine, not vinegar). Eating these regularly delivers a steady, varied supply of live bacteria — often more effective than capsules for general 'gut health.'

The most-studied single probiotic strain on earth. The go-to for antibiotic-associated and traveler's diarrhea.

L. rhamnosus GG (LGG) was isolated by Goldin and Gorbach in 1985 (hence the GG) and has been the subject of more clinical trials than any other probiotic strain — well over 300. It's a hardy strain that survives stomach acid, adheres to intestinal mucosa, and produces lactic acid and antimicrobial compounds that displace pathogens. Strongest evidence is in antibiotic-associated diarrhea, C. difficile prevention, traveler's diarrhea, and pediatric acute gastroenteritis. Sold most prominently as Culturelle.

Form

Culturelle (brand-name LGG). Generic LGG also widely available. Refrigerated forms preserve potency longer; shelf-stable spore versions are fine for travel.

Dose

10–20 billion CFU/day. Trials use 10 billion.

Timing

With food or shortly before. Separated by 2 hours from oral antibiotics.

Schedule

Daily during antibiotic course + 1–2 weeks after. Travel: starting a few days before trip and continuing throughout.

Side effects

Mild gas and bloating during the first 1–2 weeks. Rarely allergic reactions.

Interactions

Take 2 hours apart from oral antibiotics.

Contraindications

Severe immune compromise (organ transplant, neutropenia, advanced HIV) — rare sepsis risk. Central venous catheter. Critical illness.

Lab markers

Not standard. Symptom tracking.

Food sources

L. rhamnosus is present in some yogurts and fermented dairy — but the specific GG strain is only reliably delivered via supplements / Culturelle products.

A species we co-evolved with that's been disappearing from modern guts. Specific strains have strong evidence for infant colic, oral health, and mood.

Lactobacillus reuteri (now reclassified as Limosilactobacillus reuteri) is one of the few species that's a native human gut commensal — it lived in nearly everyone's microbiome a century ago and now appears in fewer than 10% of people, probably due to antibiotics, processed food, and sanitation. Different strains have different uses. DSM 17938 is the most-studied for infant colic (genuine 50%+ reduction in crying). NCIMB 30242 lowers LDL cholesterol. ATCC PTA 5289 supports oral health (Prodentis). And L. reuteri yogurt protocols (William Davis, Super Gut) re-establish the strain in adults at very high colony counts.

Form

BioGaia Protectis (DSM 17938) — infant colic, general gut. BioGaia Prodentis (ATCC PTA 5289) — oral / gum health. Cardioviva (NCIMB 30242) — cholesterol. Home-fermented L. reuteri yogurt (William Davis protocol) — very high colony counts.

Dose

100 million to 10 billion CFU/day depending on strain and use case. Read product label.

Timing

With food. Daily.

Schedule

Daily for 4–12 weeks for colonisation; longer for some uses.

Side effects

Mild gas, bloating, GI changes in the first 1–2 weeks. Generally well-tolerated.

Interactions

Take 2 hours apart from oral antibiotics. Otherwise clean.

Contraindications

Severe immune compromise. Central venous catheter (rare bacteremia risk). Pancreatitis (caution).

Lab markers

Lipid panel for NCIMB 30242. Symptom tracking for colic, oral health.

Food sources

Some fermented dairy (kefir, yogurt with reuteri strains specifically). Most modern dairy doesn't contain reuteri unless specifically inoculated.

A probiotic yeast (not bacteria) — which is exactly why it works alongside antibiotics. The most evidence-backed prevention for C. difficile and antibiotic-associated diarrhea.

S. boulardii is a yeast, not a bacterium — which means it's unaffected by antibacterial drugs. Take it simultaneously with antibiotics (unlike bacterial probiotics, which need to be timed apart). It produces antimicrobial substances active against pathogenic bacteria, modifies host immune signalling in the gut, and disrupts C. difficile toxin attachment. Multiple meta-analyses confirm meaningful protection against C. diff and antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Discovered by French microbiologist Henri Boulard, who noticed locals in Southeast Asia chewing lychee skins to treat diarrhea — the active organism turned out to be a yeast on the fruit.

Form

Saccharomyces boulardii (CNCM I-745) — the well-studied strain. Florastor is the leading brand. Generic versions also fine if strain is specified.

Dose

250–500 mg (5–10 billion cells) 2x daily during antibiotic use. 250 mg/day for general gut support.

Timing

Can be taken with antibiotics (no need to space). With food.

Schedule

Throughout antibiotic course + 7 days after. Travel: starting 3 days before, continuing through trip.

Side effects

Mild gas, constipation occasionally. Rare yeast fungemia (almost exclusively in critically ill patients with central venous catheters).

Interactions

Antifungal medications (fluconazole, etc.) — antifungal kills probiotic yeast. Generally clean otherwise.

Contraindications

Central venous catheter in place — risk of rare but serious fungemia. Critical illness / ICU patients. Severe immune compromise (HIV, transplant, neutropenia). On systemic antifungal therapy.

Lab markers

Not standard. Symptom tracking.

Food sources

Not in everyday food. Originally isolated from mangosteen / lychee skins.